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	<title>Tribuna Libre &#187; Naturaleza</title>
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	<description>Revista de Prensa: Tribuna Libre</description>
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		<title>Un delito sísmico</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39982/un-delito-sismico/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39982/un-delito-sismico/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 02 Feb 2012 21:15:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ciencia y Teconología]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Joel E. Cohen</strong>, profesor de Demografía de la Universidad Rockefeller y la Universidad de Columbia. Traducción de Kena Nequiz (Project Syndicate, 02/02/12):</p>
<p>Pocas personas fuera de Italia saben que seis sismólogos y un funcionario público están siendo enjuiciados en la pequeña ciudad de L’Aquila. Sin embargo, la cuestión tiene implicaciones para los científicos, ingenieros, administradores y sistemas jurídicos de mucho más allá de las fronteras italianas.</p>
<p>Los terremotos de 1461 y 1703 destruyeron en gran parte L’Aquila. La ciudad fue reconstruida y su población creció a más de 73,000 habitantes, y permaneció estable durante más de 300 años &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39982/un-delito-sismico/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Joel E. Cohen</strong>, profesor de Demografía de la Universidad Rockefeller y la Universidad de Columbia. Traducción de Kena Nequiz (Project Syndicate, 02/02/12):</p>
<p>Pocas personas fuera de Italia saben que seis sismólogos y un funcionario público están siendo enjuiciados en la pequeña ciudad de L’Aquila. Sin embargo, la cuestión tiene implicaciones para los científicos, ingenieros, administradores y sistemas jurídicos de mucho más allá de las fronteras italianas.</p>
<p>Los terremotos de 1461 y 1703 destruyeron en gran parte L’Aquila. La ciudad fue reconstruida y su población creció a más de 73,000 habitantes, y permaneció estable durante más de 300 años –hasta octubre de 2008 cuando empezaron de nuevo los temblores. Del primero de enero al 5 de abril de 2009, se informó que hubo 304 temblores más.</p>
<p>La comisión nacional italiana para la predicción y prevención de riesgos mayores, en la que participaban los siete individuos que ahora están en juicio, se reunió en L’Aquila durante una hora el 31 de marzo de 2009, para evaluar el enjambre sísmico. Según consta en las minutas, a Enzo Boschi, presidente del Instituto Nacional de Geofísica y Vulcanología, se le preguntó si había precursores de un terremoto como el de 1703. Su respuesta fue la siguiente: “Es improbable que haya un terremoto como el 1703 en el corto plazo, pero no se puede excluir del todo la posibilidad.”</p>
<p>El 6 de abril de 2009, un terremoto de 6.3 grados sacudió L’Aquila y poblaciones cercanas, y dejó un saldo de 300 personas muertas y más de 1,500 heridas. También destruyó aproximadamente 20,000 construcciones con lo que desplazó temporalmente a 65,000 personas.</p>
<p>Más de un año después, en julio de 2010, el fiscal, Fabio Picuti, acusó a los miembros de la comisión de homicidio involuntario y negligencia por no prevenir al público del riesgo inminente. El juicio comenzó en septiembre pasado y se prevé que dure meses o incluso años.</p>
<p>Después de que Picuti hiciera públicas las acusaciones en junio de 2010, Alan Leshner, editor ejecutivo de la revista <em>Science, </em>envió una carta abierta de protesta al presidente italiano, Giorgio Napolitano, a nombre de la Asociación Estadounidense para el Avance de la Ciencia. Explicó que las “acusaciones en contra de esos científicos son injustas e ingenuas….[N]o existe un método científico aceptado de predicción de terremotos que se pueda utilizar de manera fiable para avisar a los ciudadanos de un desastre inminente.” La Unión Estadounidense de Geofísica y miles de científicos más también protestaron.</p>
<p>Picuti supuestamente respondió: “No estoy loco. Sé que no pueden predecir terremotos. Las acusaciones no se sustentan en que no lo hayan predicho. Como funcionarios del Estado tenían determinados deberes que les imponía la ley: evaluar y clasificar los riesgos presentes en L’Aquila.”</p>
<p>En 1989, un informe del Consejo Nacional de Investigación de los Estados Unidos, <em>Improving Risk Communication, </em>recomendó que la comunicación unilateral de expertos hacia no expertos se sustituyera con un “proceso interactivo de intercambio de información y opiniones.” El informe indicaba que la comunicación sobre el riesgo solo es efectiva si los interesados consideran que se les está informando debidamente sobre los asuntos relevantes, teniendo en cuenta los límites de los conocimientos disponibles. Sin embargo, dicho intercambio de información sigue siendo un problema –y no sólo en Italia- más de veinte años después.</p>
<p>Las interacciones entre la ciencia, la tecnología y la ley se están haciendo cada vez más complejas. Las evaluaciones de riesgos y el diálogo entre los científicos y los gobiernos tienen que adaptarse a medida que avanzan las tecnologías y la ciencia. Ambas partes tienen que determinar continuamente, antes de que ocurra un desastre, si las leyes en vigor ofrecen a los científicos y funcionarios normas realistas y claras para sus análisis y para la comunicación pública. De lo contrario, los científicos y funcionarios mejor calificados podrían tener temor de participar.</p>
<p>En 2011, el Consejo Nacional de Investigación y el Centro Judicial Federal de los Estados Unidos publicaron la tercera edición, de 1016 páginas, del Manual de Referencia sobre las Evidencias Científicas (<em>Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence). </em>Si bien su objetivo es ayudar a los jueces y abogados a entender la base científica de la que se derivan las evidencias jurídicas, en su índice no figuran los terremotos. Además, en el manual apenas se hace mención de la comunicación del riesgo, en el contexto del testimonio médico.</p>
<p>Ante tales deficiencias, se deben incluir cursos de ciencia e ingeniería y sus aplicaciones sociales en la formación fundamental y en la educación continua de abogados, funcionarios públicos y aquellos que participan en las decisiones gubernamentales.  Los legisladores, fiscales y jueces, en particular, tienen que entender los alcances y limitaciones de las ciencias naturales, las ciencias sociales y la ingeniería.</p>
<p>Asimismo, los expertos de las ciencias naturales tienen que prepararse mejor para trabajar efectivamente con ingenieros, funcionarios públicos y científicos sociales (por ejemplo, economistas, demógrafos y sicólogos) a fin de comunicar las consecuencias de los descubrimientos científicos, en especial cuando hay riesgos graves de por medio.</p>
<p>Dichos riesgos no desaparecerán. En febrero de 2011 murieron cerca de 200 personas debido a un terremoto de 6.3 grados que sacudió Christchurch, Nueva Zelanda. El siguiente mes, en el terremoto de Tōhoku, Japón murieron casi 16,000 personas. A medida que se acerca el 11 de marzo, aniversario de ese terremoto, los investigadores japoneses pronosticaron en enero de 2012, que existe una probabilidad del 70% de que para 2016 otro gran terremoto sacuda la región del sur de Kanto, incluido Tokio. El mayor de ellos algún día sacudirá California. ¿Estaremos preparados?</p>
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		<title>Save us from the politics of science</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39950/save-us-from-the-politics-of-science/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 31 Jan 2012 22:25:52 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Dennis Byrne</strong>, a Chicago writer who blogs in The Barbershop <em><a href="http://www.chicagonow.com/">chicagonow</a>.com </em>(CHICAGO TRIBUNE, 31/01/12):</p>
<p>It&#8217;s bad enough when politicians and true believers distort scientific findings for their own purposes. But when scientists do it, we&#8217;ve reached a dangerous point in intellectual discourse.</p>
<p>Such is the case with the widespread belief that evidence of global warming is incontrovertible. Thankfully, some scientists courageously have decided to publicly challenge this numbing, politically correct dogma.</p>
<p>Among them isNobel Prize-winningphysicist Ivar Giaever, who recently resigned from the American Physical Society because he couldn&#8217;t accept the group&#8217;s policy statement that the &#8220;evidence is &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39950/save-us-from-the-politics-of-science/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Dennis Byrne</strong>, a Chicago writer who blogs in The Barbershop <em><a href="http://www.chicagonow.com/">chicagonow</a>.com </em>(CHICAGO TRIBUNE, 31/01/12):</p>
<p>It&#8217;s bad enough when politicians and true believers distort scientific findings for their own purposes. But when scientists do it, we&#8217;ve reached a dangerous point in intellectual discourse.</p>
<p>Such is the case with the widespread belief that evidence of global warming is incontrovertible. Thankfully, some scientists courageously have decided to publicly challenge this numbing, politically correct dogma.</p>
<p>Among them isNobel Prize-winningphysicist Ivar Giaever, who recently resigned from the American Physical Society because he couldn&#8217;t accept the group&#8217;s policy statement that the &#8220;evidence is incontrovertible: Global warming is occurring …&#8221; and mitigating action must be taken immediately to avert certain ruination. He asked, &#8220;In the APS, it is OK to discuss whether the mass of the proton changes over time and how a multiuniverse behaves, but the evidence of global warming is incontrovertible?&#8221;</p>
<p>He might as well have added, &#8220;Give me a break.&#8221; Basically that&#8217;s what an international group of 16 eminent scientists said Friday in The Wall Street Journal (&#8220;No need to panic about global warming.&#8221;).</p>
<p>&#8220;In spite of a multidecade international campaign to enforce the message that increasing amounts of the &#8216;pollutant&#8217; carbon dioxide will destroy civilization, large numbers of scientists, many very prominent, share the opinions of Giaever. And the number of scientific &#8216;heretics&#8217; is growing with each passing year. The reason is a collection of stubborn scientific facts.&#8221;</p>
<p>Among them is the absence of global warming for more than 10 years, acknowledged in private emails by climate alarmist Kevin Trenberth. That absence is troubling because the model on which global warming is based predicted otherwise.</p>
<p>These scientists observed that &#8220;although the number of publicly dissenting scientists is growing, many young scientists furtively say that while they also have serious doubts about the global-warming message, they are afraid to speak up for fear of not being promoted, or worse.&#8221; When scientists are cowed by media-fueled public opinion, you know that we&#8217;re in trouble.</p>
<p>Another example of dangerous groupthink were warnings that the BP oil spill was the worst environmental disaster ever, one that would permanently damage the ecosystems and economies of the Gulf Coast. Ocean currents, it was predicted, would sweep &#8220;plumes&#8221; of noxious and toxic pollutants around the tip of Florida and up the East Coast and my God, who knows where else! The rest would hang around and haunt the Gulf Coast for years and years.</p>
<p>Except that it didn&#8217;t happen. More than 4 million barrels of petroleum and 200,000 tons of methane … vanished, as early as September 2010, just months after the spill. A federally funded study published recently in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences concluded that naturally occurring and gluttonous bacteria devoured the nasty stuff. Swirling currents, it turns out, kept the mess bottled up in the Gulf until it disappeared.</p>
<p>Not all scientists agree; they&#8217;ll test the evidence, keeping an open mind, which is more than one can say about the climate alarmists.</p>
<p>Politically and ideologically inspired minds are not so objective about the evidence concerning the role that induced abortions may play in breast cancer. Some scientific and professional organizations have circled the wagons to fend off any evidence and possible conclusion that could dent the dogmatic belief that induced abortions are perfectly safe, safer than childbirth.</p>
<p>The Hoffman Estates-based Coalition on Abortion/Breast Cancer has for years carried on a courageous effort to educate the public about the possible relation between abortion and breast cancer. The group recently pointed to a study co-authored by researchers from the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health and the University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing that reported a nearly tripled breast cancer risk for post-abortive women.</p>
<p>By simply mentioning this study, eyes will spiral and heads will spin, accusing me of anti-choice fascism, or something. To that, I will admit to not being a scientist or capable of launching a detailed defense of or attack on such complex studies.</p>
<p>But, that&#8217;s why science should be kept free of political and ideological groupthink, the kind that is muddying such important issues as climate change, environmental &#8220;disasters&#8221; and breast cancer. As laymen, we don&#8217;t get to vote on what is scientifically accurate and credible. Nor should scientists, not if we want to get to the root of our problems.</p>
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		<title>Flora, Now in English</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39868/flora-now-in-english/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39868/flora-now-in-english/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 23 Jan 2012 21:21:49 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>James S. Miller</strong>, the dean and vice president for science at the New York Botanical Garden (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 23/01/12):</p>
<p>Botanists long thought the tallest trees on Madagascar all belonged to only three species of the genus Canarium, but two scientists have now determined that there are actually 35 species of the genus there, of which 29 are new to science.</p>
<p>To make this startling discovery, Douglas Daly of the New York Botanical Garden and his Malagasy colleague Jeannie Raharimampionona hiked through rainforests for months in 2006 and then toiled in scientific collections to sort out all &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39868/flora-now-in-english/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>James S. Miller</strong>, the dean and vice president for science at the New York Botanical Garden (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 23/01/12):</p>
<p>Botanists long thought the tallest trees on Madagascar all belonged to only three species of the genus Canarium, but two scientists have now determined that there are actually 35 species of the genus there, of which 29 are new to science.</p>
<p>To make this startling discovery, Douglas Daly of the New York Botanical Garden and his Malagasy colleague Jeannie Raharimampionona hiked through rainforests for months in 2006 and then toiled in scientific collections to sort out all of the species. Only then did they start the laborious process of formally describing each of the new species in Latin for publication in scientific papers, a requirement for making a new species public.</p>
<p>Considering all the work involved, perhaps it’s no wonder that, despite centuries of research and exploration to create a complete inventory of the world’s plant life, there may be as many as 100,000 plant species that are not yet known to science, waiting to be cataloged — if we can find and describe them in time.</p>
<p>The requirement to use Latin — which has been in place, officially, since 1908, and in practice since the 18th century — doesn’t make this process any faster. At a time when deforestation, the spread of invasive species and climate change are putting as many as one-third of all plant species at risk of extinction in the next 50 years, we don’t have time for traditions like these. That’s why, as of Jan. 1, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature no longer compels botanists to provide a <a href="http://blogs.nature.com/news/2012/01/revised-rules-for-botanical-taxonomy-take-effect.html">Latin description</a> of a new species. Perhaps even more significant, the code now recognizes publication in online academic journals as equally valid as print publication. Both changes will help to speed up the race to catalog the world’s plant life.</p>
<p>No longer will botanists have to write sentences like: “Arbor usque ad 6 m alta. Folia decidua; lamina oblanceolata vel elliptica-oblongata, 2-7 cm longa,” as I did in 2009, describing a new species from Mexico. Instead, I could simply write that Bourreria motaguensis was a six-meter-tall tree with deciduous leaves that were 2 to 7 centimeters long.</p>
<p>Simplifying the process for describing and publishing new species will undoubtedly help, but cataloging all our planet’s plant life will require much more than that. Plants are a vital source of materials and medicine; they are the basis of the food chain; they produce the oxygen we breathe. If a species becomes extinct before it is found — a phenomenon known as “anonymous extinction” — there is no way to explore its potential. We must prevent that from happening.</p>
<p>That will take concerted efforts to conduct research expeditions to the parts of the tropics that still remain unexplored, to generate financial support for the scientists needed to do the work and to train a new generation of botanists. They will have enough to do without having to memorize Latin declensions.</p>
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		<title>The Economics of Disaster</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39653/the-economics-of-disaster/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39653/the-economics-of-disaster/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 13 Jan 2012 08:11:11 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39653</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Justin Yifu Lin</strong>, Senior Vice President and Chief Economist of the World Bank, and <strong>Apurva Sanghi</strong>, World Bank senior economist and team leader of the report Natural Hazards, UnNatural Disasters: the Economics of Effective Prevention (Project Syndicate, 13/01/12):</p>
<p>Despite all of the gloomy economic news nowadays, if we thought that things couldn’t get much worse, we had a grim reminder this month that that no country is immune to the forces of nature and the havoc they wreak. Two years ago, on January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a devastating earthquake that killed more than 220,000 &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39653/the-economics-of-disaster/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Justin Yifu Lin</strong>, Senior Vice President and Chief Economist of the World Bank, and <strong>Apurva Sanghi</strong>, World Bank senior economist and team leader of the report Natural Hazards, UnNatural Disasters: the Economics of Effective Prevention (Project Syndicate, 13/01/12):</p>
<p>Despite all of the gloomy economic news nowadays, if we thought that things couldn’t get much worse, we had a grim reminder this month that that no country is immune to the forces of nature and the havoc they wreak. Two years ago, on January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a devastating earthquake that killed more than 220,000 people and shattered the country’s prospects.</p>
<p>As strange as it may sound, traditional Chinese medicine has much to teach us about dealing with disasters – in particular, to pay more attention to prevention than to therapy. In the same way, it is best to focus on reducing natural-disaster risks through prevention.</p>
<p>According to a recent report released by the World Bank and the United Nations, <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/preventingdisasters" target="_blank">Natural Hazards, UnNatural Disasters: The Economics of Effective Prevention</a>, an ounce of prevention in planning for disasters is worth a pound of cure. So prevention pays, if done right. And that means getting incentives right.</p>
<p>Incentives at every level – international, government, and individual – can play an important role in helping to prevent natural hazards from turning into disasters. A report by Tearfund, a leading relief and development charity, provides an instructive example from Mozambique. In 2000, Mozambique requested $3-4 million from donor countries to help it to prepare for impending floods. It received only about half that amount. But, after the floods struck, donors gave Mozambique more than $100 million in relief alone, and pledged more than $450 million for recovery and reconstruction.</p>
<p>How donors channel aid matters. Investments in prevention often imply long-term development expenditures. Donors could specifically earmark development aid – as opposed to humanitarian aid, whose primary focus is immediate response and relief – for prevention-related activities.</p>
<p>But it is not only donors’ responsibility to get it right. Governments play a crucial role in preventing disasters – above all, by providing information, which is necessary to understand threats, to warn of impending hazards, and to ensure that markets and individuals reflect risks.</p>
<p>The technology to produce useful information exists, but, unfortunately, many countries are not fully taking advantage of it. For example, even though Japan and Indonesia have similar seismic exposure, Japan is equipped with more than 1,000 seismographs, compared to only about 160 in Indonesia, which is roughly five times larger.</p>
<p>But there is also the more fundamental issue of making already-existing information public and easily accessible, which too often does not happen, frequently on national-security, commercial, and privacy grounds. In the United States, for example, the Federal Emergency Management Authority updates coastal risk maps for the hazard-prone Gulf of Mexico, but there is resistance to their adoption because such information could reduce property prices.</p>
<p>But prices are precisely what individuals ultimately respond to, and there are many other examples of skewed incentives that contribute to disastrous outcomes where the correct incentives could help to promote a culture of prevention. If political pressure keeps insurance prices low, for instance, that encourages people to construct in hazard-prone areas, thereby increasing their exposure and vulnerability.</p>
<p>Another example of distorted prices comes from Mumbai, where rent control was pervasive. Landlords neglected maintenance for decades, because they could not recoup the costs by raising rents, causing buildings to crumble in the annual monsoon rains. Like rent control, insecure ownership also reduces individuals’ incentives to make long-term investments in prevention.</p>
<p>In Peru, land titling is associated with an almost 70% increase in housing renovation within four years. One implication is that governments should let land and housing markets work, but complement them with targeted interventions when necessary, because, when individuals have the right information and the correct incentives, they generally decide well for themselves.</p>
<p>These considerations are all the more important in light of rising exposure to disasters. By 2050, the number of people exposed to storms and earthquakes in large cities could more than double, to 1.5 billion – and that is without taking climate change into account. Growing cities and a changing climate are shaping the future of the disaster-prevention landscape. But debating whether the recent Thailand floods or Hurricane Katrina was a result of climate change diverts attention from policies that continue to misprice risk, subsidize exposure, and promote hazardous behavior in the long run.</p>
<p>The right incentives, supported by credible and reliable institutions at all levels, can ensure that rising exposure does not translate into increasing vulnerability. Natural hazards are inevitable, but at every level we have the power to ensure that they do not become unnatural disasters.</p>
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		<title>Los huevos éticos de Europa</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39638/los-huevos-eticos-de-europa/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39638/los-huevos-eticos-de-europa/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 12 Jan 2012 17:33:47 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39638</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Algunos de sus libros son Animal Liberation (“Liberación animal”), Practical Ethics (“Ética práctica”), The Expanding Circle (“El círculo en expansión”) y The Life You Can Save (“La vida que podéis salvar”). Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 12/01/12):</p>
<p>Hace cuarenta años, me encontraba, junto con unos cuantos estudiantes más, en una calle bulliciosa de Oxford repartiendo octavillas a fin de protestar por la utilización de jaulas para gallinas en granjas de avicultura intensiva. La mayoría de quienes cogían &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39638/los-huevos-eticos-de-europa/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Algunos de sus libros son Animal Liberation (“Liberación animal”), Practical Ethics (“Ética práctica”), The Expanding Circle (“El círculo en expansión”) y The Life You Can Save (“La vida que podéis salvar”). Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 12/01/12):</p>
<p>Hace cuarenta años, me encontraba, junto con unos cuantos estudiantes más, en una calle bulliciosa de Oxford repartiendo octavillas a fin de protestar por la utilización de jaulas para gallinas en granjas de avicultura intensiva. La mayoría de quienes cogían las octavillas no sabían que los huevos que compraban procedían de gallinas mantenidas en jaulas tan pequeñas, que ni siquiera una sola ave –las jaulas suelen albergar cuatro– podría estirar del todo las alas y aletear. Las gallinas nunca podrían caminar por ellas ni poner los huevos en un nido.</p>
<p>Muchas personas aplaudieron nuestro idealismo juvenil, pero nos decían que no abrigaban esperanza alguna de que se pudiera cambiar jamás una industria importante. Sin embargo, estaban equivocadas.</p>
<p>El primer día de 2012, mantener gallinas en semejantes jaulas pasó a ser ilegal no sólo en el Reino Unido, sino también en los 27 países de la Unión Europea. Se puede seguir manteniendo gallinas en jaulas, pero deben tener más espacio y en ellas debe haber nidos y un sitio en el que puedan escarbar. El mes pasado, los miembros de la Fundación Británica pro Bienestar de las Gallinas preparó un nuevo hogar para una gallina llamada “Libertad”. Según dijeron, era una de las últimas gallinas de Gran Bretaña que seguía viviendo en el tipo de jaulas a las que nos habíamos opuesto.</p>
<p>A principios del decenio de 1970, cuando comenzó el movimiento moderno de liberación animal, ninguna organización importante hacía campaña contra las jaulas de avicultura intensiva. Hacía mucho que la Sociedad Real para la Prevención de la Crueldad con los Animales, madre de todas las organizaciones de protección de los animales, había abandonado su radicalismo inicial. Se centró en casos aislados de maltrato y no impugnó formas muy arraigadas de maltratar animales en granjas o en laboratorios. Fue necesario un empeño concertado por parte de los nuevos radicales pro animales del decenio de 1970 para sacar a dicha Sociedad de su complacencia con las jaulas de las granjas de avicultura intensiva y otras formas de cría intensiva de animales.</p>
<p>Con el tiempo, el nuevo movimiento en pro de los derechos de los animales logró llegar hasta el público más amplio. Los consumidores respondieron comprando huevos de gallinas de corral. Algunas cadenas de supermercados dejaron incluso de vender huevos de gallinas mantenidas en jaulas en granjas de avicultura intensiva.</p>
<p>En Gran Bretaña y en algunos países europeos, el bienestar de los animales adquirió relieve político y aumentó la presión de los representantes parlamentarios. La Unión Europea creó un comité científico para investigar las cuestiones relativas a las jaulas en las granjas y éste recomendó que se prohibieran las jaulas de las granjas, junto con otras formas de confinamiento de cerdos y terneros en espacios reducidos. Por fin en 1999 se aprobó la prohibición de las jaulas en las granjas de avicultura intensiva en la UE, pero, a fin de velar por que los productores tuvieran tiempo suficiente para ir abandonando progresivamente el equipo en el que habían invertido, se aplazó su aplicación hasta el 1 de enero de 2012.</p>
<p>Dice mucho en su favor que la industria británica dedicada a la producción de huevos aceptara la situación e idease nuevos métodos para mantener las gallinas. Sin embargo, no todos los países están igualmente listos para ello y se ha calculado que hasta 80 millones de gallinas pueden seguir en jaulas en granjas de avicultura intensiva, pero al menos 300 millones de gallinas que habrían tenido vidas durísimas en dichas jaulas se encuentran ahora en condiciones mucho mejores y la burocracia de la UE está recibiendo grandes presiones para que se imponga el cumplimiento de la prohibición en todas partes, en primer lugar por parte de los productores de huevos que ya la cumplen.</p>
<p>Con la prohibición de las jaulas en las granjas de avicultura intensiva, Europa confirma su primer puesto mundial en materia de bienestar de los animales, reflejado también en sus limitaciones de la utilización de animales para hacer ensayos de cosméticos, pero, ¿por qué está Europa tan adelantada respecto de otros países en su preocupación por los animales?</p>
<p>En los Estados Unidos no hay una legislación federal sobre cómo albergan sus gallinas los productores de huevos, pero, cuando se planteó esa cuestión a los votantes de California en 2008, apoyaron abrumadoramente la propuesta de exigir que todos los animales de granja tuvieran espacio para estirar las extremidades enteramente y darse la vuelta sin tocar otros animales o los lados de su jaula, lo que indica que el problema no puede estribar en las actitudes de los ciudadanos de los EE.UU, sino en que, en el nivel federal, el sistema político de este país permite a las industrias que hacen importantes donaciones a los candidatos a las elecciones disponer de demasiado poder para desoír los deseos de las mayorías populares.</p>
<p>En China, que, junto con los EE.UU., es el país que confina un mayor número de gallinas en jaulas, está empezando a surgir un movimiento en pro del bienestar de los animales. Por el bienestar de miles de millones de animales de granja, debemos desearle un rápido crecimiento y éxito.</p>
<p>El comienzo de este año es un momento para celebrar un importante avance en materia de bienestar de los animales y, por tanto, en el caso de Europa un paso para llegar a ser una sociedad más civilizada y humanitaria, que dé muestras de preocupación por todos los seres que pueden sufrir. También es una ocasión para celebrar la eficacia de la democracia y el poder de una idea ética.</p>
<p>Cuentan que la antropóloga Margaret Mead dijo: “No se debe dudar nunca que un grupo de ciudadanos reflexivos y comprometidos puedan cambiar el mundo. De hecho, sólo así se ha conseguido siempre”. La última parte puede no ser cierta, pero la primera lo es sin lugar a dudas. El fin de las jaulas en las granjas de avicultura intensiva de Europa es un acontecimiento menos espectacular que la “primavera árabe”, pero, como ese levantamiento popular, comenzó con un grupo de personas reflexivas y comprometidas.</p>
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		<title>The Emperor’s New Climate-Change Agreement</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39614/the-emperors-new-climate-change-agreement/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39614/the-emperors-new-climate-change-agreement/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 10 Jan 2012 20:31:53 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39614</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong> the author of The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It, head of the Copenhagen Consensus Center, and adjunct professor at Copenhagen Business School (Project Syndicate, 10/01/12):</p>
<p>Dressing up failure as victory has been integral to climate-change negotiations since they started 20 years ago. The latest round of talks in Durban, South Africa, in December was no exception.</p>
<p>Climate negotiations have been in virtual limbo ever since the catastrophic and humiliating Copenhagen summit in 2009, where vertiginous expectations collided with hard political reality. So as negotiators – and a handful of government ministers – arrived in Durban, expectations could &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39614/the-emperors-new-climate-change-agreement/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong> the author of The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It, head of the Copenhagen Consensus Center, and adjunct professor at Copenhagen Business School (Project Syndicate, 10/01/12):</p>
<p>Dressing up failure as victory has been integral to climate-change negotiations since they started 20 years ago. The latest round of talks in Durban, South Africa, in December was no exception.</p>
<p>Climate negotiations have been in virtual limbo ever since the catastrophic and humiliating Copenhagen summit in 2009, where vertiginous expectations collided with hard political reality. So as negotiators – and a handful of government ministers – arrived in Durban, expectations could not have been lower.</p>
<p>Yet, by the end of the talks, the European Union’s climate commissioner, Connie Hedegaard, was being applauded in the media for achieving a “breakthrough” that had “salvaged Durban,” and, most significantly, for achieving the holy grail of climate negotiations, a “legally binding treaty.” According to British climate minister Chris Huhne, the results showed that the United Nations climate-change negotiation system “really works and can produce results.”</p>
<p>Sure, the agreement would come into effect only in 2020 – which sounds oddly complacent when environmentalists and political leaders warned ahead of the Copenhagen conference that we had just six months or 50 days to solve the climate problem. But, as the British newspaper <em>The Guardian</em> assured readers, this was a breakthrough, because developing countries, including India and China, were, for the first time, “agreeing to be legally bound to curb their greenhouse gases.” And, just as importantly, the US was making the same promise.</p>
<p>Let’s take a look at the actual agreement reached in Durban that generated all that congratulatory back-slapping. It won’t take long: the document runs to two pages, contains no commitments to cut emissions, and outlines no policies to implement the undefined cuts. There is simply a promise “to launch a process to develop a protocol, another legal instrument, or an agreed outcome with legal force.”</p>
<p>An agreement to launch a legal process. That is what everyone got so worked up about? And, again, the negotiators merely promised to set themselves a deadline of 2015 to finish setting up this legal process, which would enter into force five years hence.</p>
<p>Just a few days later, the Indian environment minister, Shrimati Jayanthi Natarajan, stressed that there was no legally binding treaty: “India cannot agree to a legally binding agreement for emissions reduction at this stage of our development.…I must clarify that [Durban] does not imply that India has to take binding commitments to reduce its emissions in absolute terms in 2020.”</p>
<p>India was not alone. The day after the Durban conference, Canada officially withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol, which Russia and Japan have already declined to extend, leaving only the EU’s member states and a few other countries committed to further reductions.</p>
<p>Hollow victories have been central to climate negotiations since they began. The Durban agreement uncannily echoes the agreement reached in Bali in 2007 “to launch a comprehensive process to enable the full, effective, and sustained implementation of the [UN Climate] Convention through long-term cooperative action.” According to that deal – which was, of course, much celebrated at the time – a legal treaty was supposed to be ready for the 2009 Copenhagen meeting.</p>
<p>In Kyoto in 1997, the treaty was acclaimed as “a milestone in the history of climate protection,” and President Bill Clinton declared that “the United States has reached an historic agreement with other nations of the world to take unprecedented action to address global warming.”</p>
<p>Of course, the treaty had already been rejected in the US Senate by a 95-0 vote, and thus was dead on arrival. This, and lax interpretations of emissions in the years following Kyoto, meant that more emissions occurred under the protocol than had been expected to occur in its absence according to research undertaken by the economists Christoph Böhringer and Carsten Vogt.</p>
<p>Even at the start of global climate-change negotiations in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the aim of putting the planet “on a course to address the critical issue of global warming” soon went awry. Rich countries fell 12% short of their promise to cut emissions to 1990 levels by 2000.</p>
<p>For 20 years, climate negotiators have repeatedly celebrated deals that haven’t panned out. Worse, for all practical purposes, the promises that have been made have had no impact on global CO2 emissions. They have only provided false hope that we have addressed climate change and allowed us to push it to the back burner for another few years. So, before we get too excited celebrating the “breakthrough” of Durban, we would do well to reflect on a two-decade history of flogging a dead horse.</p>
<p>We will never reduce emissions significantly until we manage to make green energy cheaper than fossil fuels. We must focus sharply on research and development to drive down alternative energy prices over coming decades.</p>
<p>The first step toward doing that is to end our collective suspension of disbelief when it comes to climate-change negotiations. We need to see through the hype and self-serving political spin. We owe it to the future to do better.</p>
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		<title>Parliaments and Pacts</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39386/parliaments-and-pacts/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39386/parliaments-and-pacts/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 26 Dec 2011 21:41:57 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Lindiwe Mazibuko</strong>, Parliamentary Leader of South Africa’s Democratic Alliance (Project Syndicate, 26/12/11):</p>
<p>The United Nations’ recent 17th Conference of the Parties (COP-17) in Durban, South Africa succeeded in renewing the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce global greenhouse-gas emissions. But the meeting also highlighted the two major problems that plague international environmental negotiations. The first, unscientific skepticism, has an impact on the second, collective-action failure. Ultimately, only legislative bodies have the power to overcome this failure.</p>
<p>Skepticism regarding the need for environmental action arises from the relationship between environmental degradation and <em>per capita</em> income. According to the environmental &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39386/parliaments-and-pacts/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Lindiwe Mazibuko</strong>, Parliamentary Leader of South Africa’s Democratic Alliance (Project Syndicate, 26/12/11):</p>
<p>The United Nations’ recent 17th Conference of the Parties (COP-17) in Durban, South Africa succeeded in renewing the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce global greenhouse-gas emissions. But the meeting also highlighted the two major problems that plague international environmental negotiations. The first, unscientific skepticism, has an impact on the second, collective-action failure. Ultimately, only legislative bodies have the power to overcome this failure.</p>
<p>Skepticism regarding the need for environmental action arises from the relationship between environmental degradation and <em>per capita</em> income. According to the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC), degradation and pollution increase enormously at the early stages of economic growth. But, above a certain <em>per capita</em> income threshold, that trend reverses itself: at high income levels, economic growth correlates with environmental <em>improvement</em>, leading to the dubious conclusion that it might be possible to achieve sustainable growth without deviating from “business as usual” (maintaining current emissions levels).</p>
<p>This theory informs some countries’ reluctance to commit to the Kyoto Protocol’s second term. But it is clearly wrong. The United States continues to have the world’s highest <em>per capita</em> emissions levels, at 19 tons of CO2 per person annually, even though average US annual income, at $42,385 <em>per capita</em>, is also among the highest in the world. Clearly, wealth in itself is no guarantee of reduced CO2 emissions.</p>
<p>Likewise, China’s annual <em>per capita</em> income is $5,450, but it emits only 4.7 tons of CO2 per person (though, overall, it is the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases). South Africans earn an average income of $8,857 per capita, but they emit a disproportionate 9.4 tons of CO2 per person.</p>
<p>Moreover, the EKC perpetuates an erroneous assumption – that environmental damage will not curtail economic growth. In fact, research by the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change strongly suggests that a business-as-usual approach would lead to an era of irreversible environmental destruction that would preclude economic growth. We cannot afford such a strategy, especially as the poor would bear the brunt of the resulting climate change.</p>
<p>The educated consensus is that the global climate’s current trajectory must be reversed much more rapidly than business as usual would allow. Here, however, a second set of problems  – divergent interests and the complexity of international negotiations – presents itself.</p>
<p>When countries believe that high emissions levels are necessary to economic growth, they naturally become reluctant to agree to any binding protocol that would curtail emissions and thus stifle growth. This leads to a situation in which one participant can prevent the resolution of the larger group’s dilemma.</p>
<p>In 1988, Harvard University’s Robert Putnam wrote a ground-breaking paper called “Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games.” According to Putnam,  international diplomacy and domestic politics represent a liberal democracy’s two negotiating levels. A “win-set” occurs when a country’s domestic and international interests harmoniously overlap. This overlap thus represents the room for compromise that countries’ international negotiators have.</p>
<p>If a country’s domestic politics are weak – no executive accountability, no genuine legislative oversight, and a poor relationship between citizen and state – its negotiator has a large win-set. For example, South Africa’s international negotiators – executive ministers and senior civil servants – can compromise on just about anything, because they are not truly accountable to their population through the parliament.</p>
<p>Logically, one would expect this to strengthen South Africa’s diplomatic negotiating position. In fact, the diplomat who arrives at the international negotiating table with a smaller win-set – with less room for compromise – almost always secures a better deal for her country. Generally, a strong legislature results in a smaller win-set.</p>
<p>But current COP negotiations make a mockery of most legislatures. Government ministers use international meetings to mouth platitudes, while ordinary citizens’ voices are muted. There is, quite simply, an excessive focus on executive power at many negotiating forums.</p>
<p>Of course, a strong domestic legislature by itself is not enough to address the global collective-action problem: legislatures in countries like the US are overexposed to special interests that want to continue polluting. But if Americans were serious about securing a Kyoto commitment from their government, they would almost certainly get it. South Africans would not, because their parliament is hamstrung by the conflation of the state with the country’s governing political party, the African National Congress.</p>
<p>Strong legislatures, while not a sufficient condition for securing binding global agreements, are certainly<em> </em>necessary for that purpose. A country’s legislature is the single most important institution for protecting its citizenry from the excesses of the elite and the costly demands of narrow interests.</p>
<p>The irony of most internationally binding agreements is that they are not actually binding. There is no supra-national body that will enforce the Kyoto Protocol; hence Canada’s disappointing decision to leave the process. And who would police emissions from China and America, even if they did commit to an international agreement?</p>
<p>In the absence of a global Leviathan, stronger domestic legislatures are the key to resolving the world’s collective environmental problems. The less accountable a government is to its people, the less it will do for the world.</p>
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		<title>Reindeer Are Fading Into Holiday Myth</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39344/reindeer-are-fading-into-holiday-myth/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39344/reindeer-are-fading-into-holiday-myth/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 24 Dec 2011 10:32:49 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Justina C. Ray</strong>, a wildlife biologist, executive director and senior scientist at the Wildlife Conservation Society Canada (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 24/12/11):</p>
<p>Christmas is tied to the magical north and to the reindeer — creatures of mythical power that fly through the night across the world, helping to distribute happiness and good will. But reindeer do exist — we call them caribou in North America — and these animals and their home in the boreal woodlands and on the barren-ground tundra are in trouble.</p>
<p>For the past decade, I have been conducting aerial surveys of caribou herds. As &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39344/reindeer-are-fading-into-holiday-myth/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Justina C. Ray</strong>, a wildlife biologist, executive director and senior scientist at the Wildlife Conservation Society Canada (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 24/12/11):</p>
<p>Christmas is tied to the magical north and to the reindeer — creatures of mythical power that fly through the night across the world, helping to distribute happiness and good will. But reindeer do exist — we call them caribou in North America — and these animals and their home in the boreal woodlands and on the barren-ground tundra are in trouble.</p>
<p>For the past decade, I have been conducting aerial surveys of caribou herds. As I sit strapped in small planes in minus-20-degree temperatures, it amazes me that that they survive against the challenges of their environment — particularly the females. These animals spend most of the year on the move and live in places that seem intolerably harsh. They undertake long journeys of hundreds or thousands of miles and return to give birth in the same traditional areas. Such large-scale migrations are an ecological phenomenon that, sadly, is fast disappearing across the planet.</p>
<p>Much of the far north is commonly thought to be wilderness. But this situation has been changing rapidly over the last decade. Caribou require a great deal of space to survive, but the clearing of land for one development project after another, combined with the building of roads and other means of access for resource exploration, are bringing about profound changes to their habitat and making it easier for hunters to reach them.</p>
<p>A changing climate is adding additional stress. More winter rain and ice make it difficult for them to dig for the food that lies under the snow. The timing between caribou arrivals on calving grounds and spring plant growth, calibrated over thousands of years, are more and more mismatched, threatening calf survival. Unpredictable weather patterns are increasing mortality as well, and the escalating intensity and frequency of fires in forests and on the tundra present an additional threat.</p>
<p>During the past century, caribou have vanished from at least 40 percent of their southern range. They are no longer found in Montana, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island or New Brunswick. Many populations are currently in decline, some by as much as 85 percent over the past 10 years alone. Nevertheless, caribou migrations continue to represent one of the last great wildlife spectacles on earth.</p>
<p>Sadly, the wild lands that support caribou are up for grabs. The epicenter of their range is in the vast hydrocarbon-rich reaches of western Canada and Alaska, where millions of barrels of oil await extraction for markets in North America and Asia. We can’t get the oil out fast enough, and as a result, almost every caribou population in the boreal forests of northeastern British Columbia and Alberta is rapidly losing ground.</p>
<p>In the barren lands of the far north, where caribou numbers have undergone natural fluctuations over decades, the question is whether the declining populations will have the chance and the space to rebound as their ranges, particularly their calving areas, face mineral exploration, mine, oil and gas development, and a changing climate. In these regions, caribou hold tremendous cultural importance to northern people. Stresses on this species reverberate in the daily lives of those who share their range.</p>
<p>Scientists who study caribou are gaining a better understanding of what these animals need to survive, and how they respond to changes in their landscape. That knowledge suggests we move with considerably more restraint in the development of wild places that support this great animal. With comprehensive planning, we can maintain landscapes to safeguard caribou populations before all that remains of this Yuletide symbol of the natural world is a wintry dream from our childhood.</p>
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		<title>The Whitefish’s Burden</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39243/the-whitefish%e2%80%99s-burden/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39243/the-whitefish%e2%80%99s-burden/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 16 Dec 2011 09:04:10 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Pesca]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39243</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Paul Greenberg</strong>, the author of <em>Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 16/12/11):</p>
<p>As the first chill of winter descends on the Northeast and the traditional cold-weather codfish run starts in earnest, fishermen and scientists are again at odds, debating whether the once fantastically abundant North Atlantic codfish populations are finally rebuilding — or hurtling inextricably toward collapse.</p>
<p>But even as regulators parse a recent gloomy assessment of Gulf of Maine codfish populations, the entire question of the commercial future of <a title="More articles about Cod (Fish)." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cod_fish/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">cod</a> may soon become moot. Cod and other wild-caught whitefish, for &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39243/the-whitefish%e2%80%99s-burden/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Paul Greenberg</strong>, the author of <em>Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 16/12/11):</p>
<p>As the first chill of winter descends on the Northeast and the traditional cold-weather codfish run starts in earnest, fishermen and scientists are again at odds, debating whether the once fantastically abundant North Atlantic codfish populations are finally rebuilding — or hurtling inextricably toward collapse.</p>
<p>But even as regulators parse a recent gloomy assessment of Gulf of Maine codfish populations, the entire question of the commercial future of <a title="More articles about Cod (Fish)." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cod_fish/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">cod</a> may soon become moot. Cod and other wild-caught whitefish, for centuries a staple of the Western diet, are on the way out.</p>
<p>Not long ago, any kind of colorless, neutral-tasting fish product sold in the United States or Europe (“whitefish” in fishing industry parlance) was made out of one of several wild species of the taxonomic order Gadiformes: cod, pollock, haddock, hake, take your pick. Over the eons, these fish came to congregate in the cooler latitudes in large enough numbers for fishing to transform itself from an artisan practice into an industry.</p>
<p>Largely thanks to the gadiforms, fish itself was also transformed — from a regionally specific menu item into a nameless transnational protein product. But beginning in the 1990s, right around the time the term “outsourcing” was entering the vernacular, two new fish appeared from the developing world that are remaking the whitefish portfolio.</p>
<p>The first, the tilapia, is well known in the United States, though most people don’t quite know what it is (a fish farmer once told me the first time he heard the word, he thought it was a stomach disease). The name spans an entire genus: the Nile and Mozambique species, the ones most commonly used for cultivation, hail from Africa (though three-quarters of all tilapia imported into the United States come from China and Taiwan).</p>
<p>The technology for breeding them comes from many sources, ranging from food-security-conscious Israel to former Peace Corps volunteers who saw how the fish could be thrown into stagnant, algae-infested ponds in developing countries and miraculously eat up all that algae and turn it into protein. The fact that the fish can go from egg to adult in nine months makes its appeal obvious.</p>
<p>The second fish is the<a href="http://tinyurl.com/c3tzme"> Pangasius</a>, a catfish-like creature endemic to Vietnam. American catfish farmers temporarily drove it from the market in the ’90s, insisting that it not be labeled “catfish” at all. But in Europe, Pangasius is as omnipresent as the tilapia is here, and equally confounding. “Qu’est-ce qu’un Panga?” or “What is a Pangasius?” asked the title of a recent French <a href="http://www.sarnissa.stir.ac.uk/?p=371">documentary</a>.</p>
<p>Like the tilapia, it is a freshwater fish. Also, like the tilapia, it grows quickly. But Pangasius’s special talent is its ability to live in close quarters. One of the limiting factors in freshwater fish farming is the amount of dissolved oxygen in a pond. Costly aeration systems must churn oxygen into the waters of a pond or else the number of fish must be reduced.</p>
<p>Pangasius don’t seem to mind it so much when oxygen gets tight. In those moments the fish push their faces above the surface and open their mouths. Pangasius, it turns out, can breathe air.</p>
<p>This irrepressible biological trait (combined with cheap Asian labor and lax environmental standards) has allowed Pangasius to undercut Italian rainbow trout farmers and Greek branzino farmers and has even presaged a re-entry into the American market with the mysterious new name “swai” — now the ninth most consumed fish in America.</p>
<p>What’s curious about both the tilapia and the Pangasius is that they surged in the Western market when the classic fish of the Western whitefish sandwich were encountering troubles. In the late 1980s and early ’90s, the world saw a series of wild whitefish collapses, most notably in the North Sea, the Grand Banks of Canada and the famed Georges Bank off Massachusetts. Today, tilapia and Pangasius often account for more than eight billion pounds of whitefish annually — somewhere between a third to a half of all whitefish production, depending on the vagaries of the wild catch.</p>
<p>So whither whitefish in this next weird century of ours? If I were to bet, I’d say the odds are with the warm-water Asian upstarts. Yes, America still harvests two billion to three billion pounds of Alaskan pollock every year (the keystone species in today’s Filet-O-Fish).</p>
<p>And the melting of the polar icecaps may indeed extend the range of the traditional gadiforms to higher latitudes and open hitherto untapped fishing grounds to fishing fleets. But at a certain point heat may dramatically contract the range of the gadiforms on our buns. Which is good news for farmers of tilapia and Pangasius, which seem to grow faster the hotter it gets.</p>
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		<title>Los extremistas climáticos</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39181/los-extremistas-climaticos/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39181/los-extremistas-climaticos/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 13 Dec 2011 21:33:05 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39181</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist y Cool It, director del Centro para el Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Copenhagen Business School (Project Syndicate, 13/12/11):</p>
<p>Muchas veces se dice que el tiempo extremo es una de las principales razones para tomar medidas firmes respecto del calentamiento global. Hoy en día, ningún huracán ni ola de calor pasa sin que un político o activista lo presente como evidencia de la necesidad de un acuerdo sobre el clima global, como el que se acaba de posponer hasta fines de la década en Durban, Sudáfrica.</p>
<p>Estas afirmaciones &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39181/los-extremistas-climaticos/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist y Cool It, director del Centro para el Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Copenhagen Business School (Project Syndicate, 13/12/11):</p>
<p>Muchas veces se dice que el tiempo extremo es una de las principales razones para tomar medidas firmes respecto del calentamiento global. Hoy en día, ningún huracán ni ola de calor pasa sin que un político o activista lo presente como evidencia de la necesidad de un acuerdo sobre el clima global, como el que se acaba de posponer hasta fines de la década en Durban, Sudáfrica.</p>
<p>Estas afirmaciones merecen un escrutinio minucioso. En 2007, el Panel Intergubernamental sobre Cambio Climático de las Naciones Unidas (IPCC por su sigla en inglés) dio a conocer un informe sobre los extremos climáticos que recibió considerable atención por parte de los medios. Pero, dos años más tarde, se descubrió que algunas de las afirmaciones fundamentales del informe del IPCC -por ejemplo, que el calentamiento global causaría que los inmensos glaciares del Himalaya desaparecieran para 2035, o reduciría a la mitad los rendimientos de los cultivos africanos para 2020- se basaban en declaraciones hechas en llamamientos de organizaciones ambientalistas, y estaban respaldadas por escasa evidencia, o directamente ninguna.</p>
<p>A pesar de este error, el IPCC desde hace mucho tiempo es una fuente bastante confiable de estimaciones sensatas y responsables en un debate por lo demás histriónico. Desafortunadamente, las estimaciones sensatas no son primicia. Por ejemplo, de acuerdo con el IPCC, los niveles del mar aumentarán un volumen relativamente manejable de 18-59 centímetros (7-23 pulgadas) para fines del siglo, mientras que los medios y los activistas suelen decir que deberíamos estar preparados para que el incremento de los niveles del mar se mida en metros.</p>
<p>De la misma manera, los medios tergiversaron los resultados del informe de 2010 del IPCC sobre los extremos climáticos. El diario más prestigioso de Suecia, <em>Svenske Dagbladet</em>, llenó casi toda una primera página del diario del domingo con un cuerpo eviscerado que mostraba arterias expuestas, adornado con la advertencia: &#8220;El clima cada vez más cálido amenaza con más muerte&#8221;. En una doble página completa en el interior del periódico, se mostraba un gráfico de muertes estacionales en la pasada década, y se indicaba con alarmantes puntos rojos cómo las olas de calor estivales han matado a decenas de suecos. Sin embargo, hasta una lectura rápida del gráfico demostraba claramente que muere mucha más gente de frío que de calor.</p>
<p>El informe del IPCC decía efectivamente que el calentamiento global implicaría temperaturas cálidas más extremas, pero también señalaba que habría menos temperaturas <em>frías</em> extremas. Como cada vez muere más gente casi en todos los rincones del planeta por las temperaturas frías que por las temperaturas cálidas, el impacto general en el calentamiento global serán <em>menos muertes</em> por temperaturas extremas. De hecho, según una estimación, para mediados de siglo, aproximadamente 400.000 personas más morirán por el calor de las que habrían muerto con las temperaturas actuales, pero morirán 1,8 millones menos de personas por el frío. Desafortunadamente, las no muertes son una no noticia.</p>
<p>En noviembre, <em>The Christian Science Monitor</em> se centró en los hallazgos del IPCC sobre los huracanes, cuya fuerza y frecuencia se han asociado al calentamiento global desde que el filme <em>Una verdad incómoda</em> del ex vicepresidente de Estados Unidos Al Gore ganó preponderancia en los medios gracias al huracán Katrina. El titular del <em>Monitor</em> decía con estridencia: &#8220;Advertencia sobre el calentamiento climático: prepárense para olas de calor más calientes, tormentas más fuertes&#8221;. Sin embargo, mientras que el IPCC sugiere que las velocidades máximas de los vientos de los huracanes muy probablemente aumenten, también predice que la cantidad total de huracanes tropicales decaerá, y que la frecuencia de los huracanes extra tropicales muy probablemente también merme.</p>
<p>El IPCC claramente sostiene que los costos por los daños producidos por los huracanes han aumentado sostenidamente porque hay más gente, con propiedades más costosas, que hoy vive donde azotan los huracanes. La población, la exposición y la vulnerabilidad, no los gases de tipo invernadero, son los principales factores detrás del futuro daño también.</p>
<p>Por cierto, el IPCC observa que los mayores costos ocasionados por los huracanes &#8220;no han sido atribuidos al cambio climático&#8221;. En consecuencia, si queremos evitar futuros daños causados por huracanes, tenemos que invertir en adaptación. Eso implica mejor gestión del riesgo, lo que conlleva códigos de edificación más estrictos y humedales mejorados para mitigar el aumento de las tormentas.</p>
<p>Existe evidencia considerable que sí sugiere que el calentamiento global causa incrementos de las lluvias, especialmente de las lluvias torrenciales. Eso ha llevado a muchos observadores a culpar al calentamiento global por las inundaciones devastadoras en Pakistán, Australia y Tailandia en los últimos años. Pero el IPCC cuenta una historia diferente: la evidencia no puede ni siquiera indicar de manera confiable si la mayor cantidad de precipitaciones, en efecto, ha afectado la magnitud y la frecuencia de las inundaciones (en terminología de las Naciones Unidas, &#8220;baja confianza a escala global respecto inclusive del signo de estos cambios&#8221;).</p>
<p>Eso puede sonar contrario a la intuición. Pero se produjeron cambios mucho más importantes: en particular, la construcción de represas y los grandes asentamientos en planicies aluviales hicieron que los ríos no pudieran fluir naturalmente. Si queremos ayudar a las potenciales víctimas de las inundaciones, la evidencia claramente demuestra que deberíamos recuperar las planicies aluviales.</p>
<p>Una mayor precipitación también tiene consecuencias positivas -sobre todo, más agua dulce para un mundo que tiene sed-. Hoy, aproximadamente 2.000 millones de personas sufren escasez de agua, lo que significa que se las arreglan con menos de 1.700 metros cúbicos (60.035 pies cúbicos) por año. El crecimiento de la población por sí solo sugiere que este número podría aumentar a alrededor de 3.000 millones hacia fines del siglo. Pero más precipitaciones como consecuencia del calentamiento global muy probablemente reduzcan la cifra a unos 1.700 millones.</p>
<p>Las historias tenebrosas sobre el clima se basan en una narrativa simple: más CO2  significa más daño ambiental y muerte -y la única manera de resolverlo es reduciendo las emisiones de carbono-. Si bien esto sirve para un mensaje político pegadizo, tiene la clara desventaja de ser erróneo.</p>
<p>El calentamiento global hará que ciertos fenómenos, como las olas de calor y las velocidades de los vientos huracanados, se vuelvan más extremas, mientras que otros, como las olas de frío y la frecuencia de los huracanes, se mitiguen. Y, en algunos casos, como las mayores precipitaciones, el calentamiento global tendrá efectos positivos y negativos.</p>
<p>Por supuesto, nada de esto significa que no deberíamos ocuparnos del cambio climático y concentrarnos en la innovación para generar energía ecológica menos costosa. El último informe del IPCC es importante precisamente porque ilustra los verdaderos problemas ambientales planteados por el calentamiento global, sin exagerarlos para conseguir un buen titular. Ofrece información confiable sobre el clima y hace hincapié en que la adaptación es esencial para mejorar la calidad de vida de las generaciones futuras.</p>
<p>También demuestra por qué el último fracaso a la hora de concluir un acuerdo integral sobre el clima no son todas malas noticias. Pero, cuando se trata del cambio climático, a los medios evidentemente no les gusta que sea de otra manera.</p>
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		<title>Hope at last at the Durban conference on climate change</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39193/hope-at-last-at-the-durban-conference-on-climate-change/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39193/hope-at-last-at-the-durban-conference-on-climate-change/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 11 Dec 2011 22:59:33 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39193</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Michael Jacobs</strong>, a special adviser to Gordon Brown from 2004-10, is a visiting professor on climate change at the London School of Economics (THE GUARDIAN, 11/12/11):</p>
<p>UN climate change conferences don&#8217;t of themselves cut greenhouse gas emissions. Negotiations about targets and texts cannot do that; only government policies that incentivise and require business investment in low carbon technologies and other emission-reducing activities can.</p>
<p>So the standard by which UN talks should be judged is whether or not they make such policy and investment more likely or less. And from that perspective the conference that has ended in <a title="The Guardian - Why Durban is different to climate change agreements of the past" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/dec/11/durban-questions-and-answers?newsfeed=true">Durban</a>&#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39193/hope-at-last-at-the-durban-conference-on-climate-change/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Michael Jacobs</strong>, a special adviser to Gordon Brown from 2004-10, is a visiting professor on climate change at the London School of Economics (THE GUARDIAN, 11/12/11):</p>
<p>UN climate change conferences don&#8217;t of themselves cut greenhouse gas emissions. Negotiations about targets and texts cannot do that; only government policies that incentivise and require business investment in low carbon technologies and other emission-reducing activities can.</p>
<p>So the standard by which UN talks should be judged is whether or not they make such policy and investment more likely or less. And from that perspective the conference that has ended in <a title="The Guardian - Why Durban is different to climate change agreements of the past" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/dec/11/durban-questions-and-answers?newsfeed=true">Durban</a>, South Africa, amid considerable drama, should be regarded as very much a success.</p>
<p>First, it has forced countries to admit that their current climate policies are inadequate. The Durban agreement explicitly refers to the &#8220;emissions gap&#8221; – the difference between the aggregate impact of commitments that countries have made, and the upper limit of emissions required to have a chance of meeting the globally agreed goal of no more than two degrees of global warming. That gap is large, and countries have now agreed that their targets will need to be strengthened to try to close it. In doing so Durban has snatched the 2C goal from the jaws of impossibility. It still looks very difficult to achieve, but if more concerted action is now taken early enough, it yet could be.</p>
<p>Second, Durban has re-established the principle that climate change should be tackled through a framework of international law. Since the failure of the <a title="The Guardian - Low targets, goals dropped: Copenhagen ends in failure" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/dec/18/copenhagen-deal">Copenhagen talks</a> two years ago, it seemed that the world had abandoned this ideal in favour of so-called &#8220;pledge and review&#8221;, in which countries made purely voluntary national commitments. The legal approach has the great advantage of ensuring that national commitments outlast individual governments, making them much more certain for business and for other countries seeking confidence that their own low carbon policies will not be undermined by free riders elsewhere.</p>
<p>At the heart of the Durban deal is the extension of the <a title="The Guardian - Kyoto protocol" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/kyoto-protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, the legally binding treaty signed in 1997. Although only the EU and a few other countries are likely to maintain their commitment to it, this is vital to preserve its legal rules and mechanisms, which have done much to enable climate policy in the last decade.</p>
<p>At the same time, Durban has set up a roadmap towards a new treaty to succeed Kyoto in 2020, which for the first time will require the big emerging economies such as China, India and Brazil, to make legally binding commitments too. This is a vital recognition of the key role these countries must now play (and in many cases are playing) in tackling climate change, given the rate at which their economies and emissions are growing. It is a very significant breakthrough.</p>
<p>Third, the conference has established a new Green Climate Fund which, if properly financed (still an &#8220;if&#8221; not a &#8220;when&#8221;), will provide vital support to the poorest countries to reduce their emissions and adapt to the climate change they are already experiencing.</p>
<p>So in all these ways Durban has given a major boost to climate policy and low carbon investment. Before the conference started, few people believed such a deal could be achieved. That it was is due to an unprecedented alliance of the European Union with the large group of poor and island countries that are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Effectively defeating those countries, including the US, which did not want either to raise their ambition levels or pursue a legally binding framework, this alliance has provided a heartening example of how UN processes can empower small countries and progressive political goals. For the EU, it has demonstrated in otherwise uncertain times that common purpose can achieve both global good and national interest. David Cameron, take note.</p>
<p>So does Durban save us from <a title="Wellcome Trust - global warming" href="http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/Our-vision/Research-challenges/Environment-nutrition-and-health/index.htm?gclid=COG59NDS-qwCFVBTfAodpAmKSw">global warming</a>? No. In itself, as green NGOs have rightly pointed out, it does not divert the world from the dangerous path towards a four degree temperature rise on which we are now walking. But it will help strengthen the fight against it.</p>
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		<title>Hope in the Age of Man</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39081/hope-in-the-age-of-man/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39081/hope-in-the-age-of-man/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 08 Dec 2011 00:02:47 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=39081</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Emma Marris</strong>, the author of <em>Rambunctious Garden: Saving Nature in a Post-Wild World</em>; <strong>Peter Kareiva</strong>, the chief scientist for the Nature Conservancy; <strong>Joseph Mascaro</strong>, a postdoctoral associate at the Carnegie Institution for Science and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and <strong>Erle C. Ellis</strong>, an associate professor of geography and environmental systems at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 08/12/11):</p>
<p>Scientists interested in drawing attention to the human transformation of planet <a title="More articles about Earth (Planet)." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/earth_planet/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">Earth</a> have begun calling the current geological epoch the Anthropocene — the age of man. Naming an epoch is serious &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/39081/hope-in-the-age-of-man/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Emma Marris</strong>, the author of <em>Rambunctious Garden: Saving Nature in a Post-Wild World</em>; <strong>Peter Kareiva</strong>, the chief scientist for the Nature Conservancy; <strong>Joseph Mascaro</strong>, a postdoctoral associate at the Carnegie Institution for Science and the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute and <strong>Erle C. Ellis</strong>, an associate professor of geography and environmental systems at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 08/12/11):</p>
<p>Scientists interested in drawing attention to the human transformation of planet <a title="More articles about Earth (Planet)." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/earth_planet/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">Earth</a> have begun calling the current geological epoch the Anthropocene — the age of man. Naming an epoch is serious business — and in this case the new name is well deserved, given humanity’s enormous alteration of the Earth.</p>
<p>We have acidified the oceans and changed global climate with our use of fossil fuels. We have bent more than 75 percent of the ice-free land on Earth to our will. We have built so many dams that half of the world’s river flow is regulated, stored or impeded by human-made structures. We have transported plants and animals hither and yon as crops and livestock and as accidental stowaways.</p>
<p>Some environmentalists see the Anthropocene as a disaster by definition, since they see all human changes as degradation of a pristine Eden. If your definition demands that nature be completely untouched by humans, there is indeed no nature left.</p>
<p>But in fact, humans have been changing ecosystems for millenniums. We have learned that ecosystems are not — and have never been — static entities. The notion of a virgin, pristine wilderness was understandable in the days of Captain Cook — but since the emergence of modern ecology and archaeology, it has been systematically dismantled by empirical evidence.</p>
<p>Yet even scientists are still misled by the idea of an untouched, natural paradise. A <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01752.x/abstract">paper</a> published in October by a group of scientists at the <a title="More articles about the University of California." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/organizations/u/university_of_california/index.html?inline=nyt-org">University of California, Davis</a>, in the journal Conservation Biology criticizes the idea of the Anthropocene because it leaves “the impression that nowhere on earth is natural” and because “the concept of pervasive human-caused change may cultivate hopelessness in those dedicated to conservation and may even be an impetus for accelerated changes in land use motivated by profit.”</p>
<p>We defend the term “Anthropocene,” and we do not accept the argument that the concept opens the floodgates of unrestricted development. To assert that without the ideal of pristine wilderness, humanity will inevitably go on ruining our best-loved landscapes is analogous to Dostoyevsky’s dictum that without God, everything is permitted.</p>
<p>Yes, we live in the Anthropocene — but that does not mean we inhabit an ecological hell. Our management and care of natural places and the millions of other species with which we share the planet could and should be improved. But we must do far more than just hold back the tide of change and build higher and stronger fences around the Arctic, the Himalayas and the other “relatively intact ecosystems,” as the scientists put it in their article.</p>
<p>We can accept the reality of humanity’s reshaping of the environment without giving up in despair. We can, and we should, consider actively moving species at risk of extinction from <a title="Recent and archival news about global warming." href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/science/topics/globalwarming/index.html?inline=nyt-classifier">climate change</a>. We can design ecosystems to maintain wildlife, filter water and sequester carbon. We can restore once magnificent ecosystems like Yellowstone and the Gulf of Mexico to new glories — but glories that still contain a heavy hand of man. We can fight sprawl and mindless development even as we cherish the exuberant nature that can increasingly be found in our own cities, from native gardens to green roofs. And we can do this even as we continue to fight for international agreements on limiting the greenhouses gases that are warming the planet.</p>
<p>The Anthropocene does not represent the failure of environmentalism. It is the stage on which a new, more positive and forward-looking environmentalism can be built. This is the Earth we have created, and we have a duty, as a species, to protect it and manage it with love and intelligence. It is not ruined. It is beautiful still, and can be even more beautiful, if we work together and care for it.</p>
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		<title>Global warnings</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38846/global-warnings/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38846/global-warnings/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 30 Nov 2011 19:46:29 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=38846</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Rachel Marsden</strong>, a columnist, political strategist and former Fox News host. She is the author of <em>American Bombshell: A Tale of Domestic and International Invasion</em> (CHICAGO TRIBUNE, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>Global leaders are meeting in Durban, South Africa, in an attempt to figure out how to continue their fight against &#8220;climate change&#8221; when the first Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends in 2012. Since I&#8217;m sitting here in the dark with the heat off, perhaps they&#8217;d grant me the temporary moral authority to offer a few suggestions for their agenda.</p>
<p>•Don&#8217;t waste any time fiddling with the planet&#8217;s thermostat. So the &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38846/global-warnings/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Rachel Marsden</strong>, a columnist, political strategist and former Fox News host. She is the author of <em>American Bombshell: A Tale of Domestic and International Invasion</em> (CHICAGO TRIBUNE, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>Global leaders are meeting in Durban, South Africa, in an attempt to figure out how to continue their fight against &#8220;climate change&#8221; when the first Kyoto Protocol commitment period ends in 2012. Since I&#8217;m sitting here in the dark with the heat off, perhaps they&#8217;d grant me the temporary moral authority to offer a few suggestions for their agenda.</p>
<p>•Don&#8217;t waste any time fiddling with the planet&#8217;s thermostat. So the big achievement of the previous summit in Cancun, Mexico, was agreeing that the Earth&#8217;s temperature must not be permitted to increase by 2 degrees Celsius? Look, I&#8217;ve been in European gyms with air conditioning that can&#8217;t even be controlled within the space of a few thousand square feet, despite regular intervention by head-scratching specialists. Usually the excuse is that the &#8220;ceiling is too high.&#8221; Well, guess what? The Earth&#8217;s ceiling is really, really high. Give it up already and move on to something you can realistically control.</p>
<p>•Nuclear energy is the future. Nuclear energy: good. Nuclear bomb: bad. It&#8217;s that simple. Now can we move on to a less silly debate? Oh, you say you&#8217;re worried about a nuclear energy facility going all Chernobyl on you? While you&#8217;re at it, why don&#8217;t you also avoid getting your hair cut for fear the hairdresser will stab you in the eye with the scissors while trimming your bangs? The odds are about the same for both. Great Britain has already found out what happens when nuclear is replaced by much dirtier coal: The prices go up, and no one is any happier. Speaking of which &#8230;</p>
<p>•Imposing green alternatives almost always results in dirtier ones. When I go to the supermarket and am told the plastic bags cost money, it isn&#8217;t ever going to force me to carry around loose groceries. I&#8217;ll always pay the extra money and tolerate the cashier&#8217;s dirty looks in exchange for the Earth-murdering plastic bags, which I will then recycle as garbage bags at home before throwing them in the trash, where they will hopefully be recycled by a seagull who will recoup them from the landfill and use them in a nest or maybe even as a stylish necklace that would make Charles Darwin proud. When enviro-fascists succeed in removing those bags from stores and I&#8217;m expected to carry loose groceries, I will then rely on grocery delivery — meaning a gas-guzzling truck will deliver my groceries and someone will carry them to my door in bags or boxes.</p>
<p>•Likewise, what do people do when heating their home gets too expensive? They throw wood on the fire. And that&#8217;s pollution we can actually see –— not just &#8220;faith-based&#8221; pollution.</p>
<p>•Oil is the future. At least it&#8217;s your future and that of your kids. Beyond that, come on — do you really care anyway? It won&#8217;t be running out anytime soon, so how about embracing it so we don&#8217;t lose an economic advantage to those who already accept this fact?</p>
<p>•Excessive tree-hugging is suffocating the foliage. Plants need carbon dioxide to live and produce oxygen. Humans need oxygen and need to eat plants. One of the biggest issues facing humanity now and increasingly in the future is food security, particularly in Africa and the Arab world, where we&#8217;re already seeing uprisings. Why would anyone want to risk further stoking food shortages and political instability in the interest of stopping an abstraction like &#8220;climate change&#8221;? Let&#8217;s get our priorities straight.</p>
<p>•Innovation can&#8217;t be forced; it needs to emerge organically. Benjamin Franklin and Albert Einstein weren&#8217;t successful as inventors because some world governing body held a gun to their heads — or to their wallets. Encourage &#8220;green&#8221; invention by promoting scientific education and critical thinking rather than indulging the ongoing epidemic of ensconcing kids in liberal arts programs to educate them far beyond their intelligence. A focus on technological education will lead to the emergence of &#8220;green alternatives&#8221; that don&#8217;t need tons of government cash to get an inch off the ground.</p>
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		<title>Climate Justice</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38840/climate-justice/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38840/climate-justice/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 30 Nov 2011 19:20:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mary Robinson</strong>, former President of Ireland and President of the Mary Robinson Foundation for Climate Justice., and <strong>Archbishop Desmond Tutu</strong>, Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Laureate (Project Syndicate, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>Before the Copenhagen climate-change summit two years ago, the two of us sat together in Cape Town to listen to five African farmers from different countries, four of whom were women, tell us how climate change was undermining their livelihoods. Each explained how floods and drought, and the lack of regular seasons to sow and reap, were outside their normal experience. Their fears are &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38840/climate-justice/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mary Robinson</strong>, former President of Ireland and President of the Mary Robinson Foundation for Climate Justice., and <strong>Archbishop Desmond Tutu</strong>, Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town and a Nobel Peace Laureate (Project Syndicate, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>Before the Copenhagen climate-change summit two years ago, the two of us sat together in Cape Town to listen to five African farmers from different countries, four of whom were women, tell us how climate change was undermining their livelihoods. Each explained how floods and drought, and the lack of regular seasons to sow and reap, were outside their normal experience. Their fears are shared by subsistence farmers and indigenous people worldwide – the people bearing the brunt of climate shocks, though they played no part in causing them.</p>
<p>Now, two years later, we are in Durban, where South Africa is hosting this year’s climate-change conference, COP17, and the situation for poor people in Africa and elsewhere has deteriorated even further. In its latest report, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that it is virtually certain that, in global terms, hot days have become hotter and occur more often; indeed, they have increased in frequency by a factor of 10 in most regions of the world.</p>
<p>Moreover, the brutal paradox of climate change is that heavy precipitation is occurring more often as well, increasing the risk of flooding. Since 2003, East Africa has had the eight warmest years on record, which is no doubt contributing to the severe famine that now afflicts 13 million people in the Horn of Africa.</p>
<p>These are the consequences that a mere one degree of warming above pre-industrial levels has wrought. The UN Environment Program’s just published report <em>Bridging the Emissions Gap</em> shows that over the course of this century, warming will likely rise to four degrees unless we take stronger action to cut emissions. Yet the latest evidence demonstrates that we are not acting – the International Energy Agency’s <em>World Energy Report 2011</em> reveals that CO2 emissions have rebounded to a record high.</p>
<p>We are alarmed that expectations for COP17 are so low. Where is the global leadership that must respond urgently? We desperately need a global deal.</p>
<p>At the heart of this deal is the preservation of the Kyoto Protocol. The Protocol is not a perfect instrument. It does too little to cut global emissions, and it requires too few countries to cut their emissions growth. But it is part of international law, and that is vital.</p>
<p>Climate change is a global problem: if countries are not confident that others are addressing it, they will not feel an imperative to act themselves. So, having a legal framework with clear and common rules to which all countries are committed is critically important – and the only assurance we have that action will be taken to protect the most vulnerable.</p>
<p>The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol expires at the end of 2012. So the European Union and the other Kyoto parties (the United States never ratified the agreement, and the Protocol’s terms asked little of China, India, and other emerging powers) must commit to a second commitment period, in order to ensure that this legal framework is maintained.</p>
<p>At the same time, all countries must acknowledge that extending the lifespan of the Kyoto Protocol will not solve the problem of climate change, and that a new or additional legal framework that covers all countries is needed. The Durban meeting must agree to initiate negotiations towards this end – with a view to concluding a new legal instrument by 2015 at the latest.</p>
<p>All of this is not only possible, but also necessary, because the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy makes economic, social, and environmental sense. The problem is that making it happen requires political will, which, unfortunately, seems in short supply.</p>
<p>Climate change is a matter of justice. The richest countries caused the problem, but it is the world’s poorest who are already suffering from its effects. In Durban, the international community must commit to righting that wrong.</p>
<p>Political leaders must think inter-generationally. They need to imagine the world of 2050, with its nine billion people, and take the right decisions now to ensure that our children and grandchildren inherit a liveable world.</p>
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		<title>Deadlock in Durban</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38835/deadlock-in-durban/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38835/deadlock-in-durban/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 30 Nov 2011 19:07:16 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Jagdish Bhagwati</strong>, professor of Economics and Law at Columbia University and Senior Fellow in International Economics at the Council on Foreign Relations (Project Syndicate, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>The 17th conference of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, popularly known as COP-17, is taking place in Durban, South Africa, at a critical moment, as the historic 1997 Kyoto Protocol is set to expire next year. But, like the climate-change conferences in Copenhagen in 2009 and in Cancún in 2010, COP-17 can be expected to spend much and produce little.</p>
<p>Indeed, the extravagance of these conferences seems to grow, rather than &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38835/deadlock-in-durban/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Jagdish Bhagwati</strong>, professor of Economics and Law at Columbia University and Senior Fellow in International Economics at the Council on Foreign Relations (Project Syndicate, 30/11/11):</p>
<p>The 17th conference of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, popularly known as COP-17, is taking place in Durban, South Africa, at a critical moment, as the historic 1997 Kyoto Protocol is set to expire next year. But, like the climate-change conferences in Copenhagen in 2009 and in Cancún in 2010, COP-17 can be expected to spend much and produce little.</p>
<p>Indeed, the extravagance of these conferences seems to grow, rather than shrink, as their dismal results become more apparent. COP-15 in Copenhagen lasted 12 days, and is estimated to have attracted 15,000 delegates and 5,000 journalists. The carbon emissions created by so many people flying to Denmark was real, while the emissions targets that the conference sought remained beyond reach. That will be true in Durban as well – and on an even greater scale.</p>
<p>The real problem is that the expectations concerning meaningful action on climate change, as opposed to gimmicks such as US President Barack Obama’s last-minute arrival and minuscule gestures in Copenhagen, are now lower than ever. There are two problems that cannot be wished away.</p>
<p>First, the United States under Obama’s ineffective leadership has drifted yet further into a “What’s in it for me?” attitude on key issues requiring international action. In place of what the economist Charles Kindleberger once called an “altruistic hegemon,” the America that the world now faces is what I call a “selfish hegemon.”</p>
<p>Thus, the US has virtually pulled out of the Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations, with Obama acquiescing to greedy business lobbies that will not settle unless more of their demands are met. But not only has Obama abandoned Doha; he has also seriously endangered the multilateral trading system by diverting US efforts and resources to discriminatory bilateral trade deals and, most recently, to the Trans-Pacific Partnership, which will principally aid countries that are worried about an aggressive China and seek political security rather than increased trade. The same is true of environmental action: after Australia’s belated ratification of the Kyoto Protocol in 2007, the US remains the only country that has not ratified the agreement.</p>
<p>The second problem is that the sheer weight of the US in international affairs, though diminished nowadays, has nonetheless led to a corruption of the principles that should underpin a new climate-change treaty to succeed the Kyoto Protocol.</p>
<p>For example, unlike the World Trade Organization, whose dispute-settlement mechanism imposes penalties for abandoning negotiated reductions of trade barriers, the targets for emission reductions are not binding and enforceable commitments. The US has not agreed to accept such sanctions for failing to meet emissions targets; but, without penalties, the exercise is largely futile and only encourages cynicism about the effort to combat climate change.</p>
<p>Moreover, abandoning the Kyoto Protocol’s exemption of developing countries from obligations for current emissions, the US has insisted on obligations from China and India that reflect a common form of “taxation” of emissions. But there are persuasive reasons why these countries insist that the obligations must instead reflect <em>per capita</em> emissions, a criterion that would require far greater emission cuts by the US than its leaders now contemplate.</p>
<p>Besides, these countries correctly argue that the tradeoff between action on climate change and poverty reduction is more compelling for them at their level of <em>per capita</em> income, unless they can access newly emerging technologies at low cost. This demand suggests that the US should subsidize the flow of technology to India and China from US firms holding patents, which is highly impractical.</p>
<p>That is where the $100 billion Global Climate Change Fund, promised at the Cancún COP-16 conference, comes in. Unfortunately, even environmental icons like Al Gore in the US are so heavily invested in new green technology that their self-interest is tied up in this fund being spent on developing privately owned new technologies that are protected by patents.</p>
<p>The new “Green Revolution” seeds that the Nobel laureate agronomist Norman Borlaug developed with public money were freely available to all users anywhere. The technology developed by the money spent from the Global Climate Change Fund also should be equally available to all, including India and China, which would then enable them to agree to more emissions cuts.</p>
<p>Indeed, even the contributions to the Fund should have reflected the past damage by the developed countries over the course of a century of carbon emissions – an obligation based on the well-established tort principle that the US has accepted for domestic pollution. But here, too, the US has rejected the idea outright.</p>
<p>Several such sensible ways to design the Kyoto Protocol’s successor treaty have been undermined by efforts to accommodate inappropriate US-led demands and objections, resulting in the impasse that became evident at the COP conferences in Copenhagen and Cancún. Those who do not believe in magic know better than to hope that it will somehow disappear in Durban.</p>
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		<title>Scary climate talks in Durban</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38971/scary-climate-talks-in-durban/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38971/scary-climate-talks-in-durban/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 29 Nov 2011 22:59:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Craig Rucker</strong>, executive director of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 29/11/11):</p>
<p>It’s that time of year again. Another holiday season and another <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">United Nations</a> climate conference is getting under way in some remote corner of the world.</p>
<p>The good news for those of us skeptical of global warming fear-mongering is that the chance of <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">U.N.</a> delegates now gathered in Durban, <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/south-africa/">South Africa</a>, agreeing to a revamped global warming treaty is slim. The bad news is that much remains at stake.</p>
<p>Global warming has become the ultimate means for anyone lacking a beneficial product &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38971/scary-climate-talks-in-durban/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Craig Rucker</strong>, executive director of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 29/11/11):</p>
<p>It’s that time of year again. Another holiday season and another <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">United Nations</a> climate conference is getting under way in some remote corner of the world.</p>
<p>The good news for those of us skeptical of global warming fear-mongering is that the chance of <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">U.N.</a> delegates now gathered in Durban, <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/south-africa/">South Africa</a>, agreeing to a revamped global warming treaty is slim. The bad news is that much remains at stake.</p>
<p>Global warming has become the ultimate means for anyone lacking a beneficial product or service to cash in and realize their dreams of wealth through government subsidies and mandates. With the Kyoto Protocol set to expire in 2012, carbon speculators are not about to let their billions (and hoped-for trillions) slip away without a fight.</p>
<p>Pity the poor carbon traders who could end up having to search for productive employment in the middle of a recession they helped worsen. Pity also the alternative-energy speculators. The public, which wants the lights to stay on, is beginning to realize that energy generation has to be about power, not freebies. Certainly don’t forget the researchers, climate campaigners and Third World bureaucrats, all of whom have developed an unhealthy sense of entitlement to the productive-world’s tax dollars.</p>
<p>The climate powers that be may wish for a treaty, but they aim to keep the cash flowing by any means necessary. They now seek smaller agreements, which are especially helpful to bypass the <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-states-senate/">U.S. Senate</a>. For instance, the <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">U.N.</a>’s REDD program has Western speculators buying land in developing nations in the name of forestry but, in reality, these are schemes that cash in on huge subsidy payments &#8211; eco-imperialism at its worst. <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">U.N.</a> Framework Convention on Climate Change Secretary Christiana Figueres recently expressed hope to expand the <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">U.N.</a> “Green Climate Fund” from $100 billion to $400 billion. At a recent conference in Bonn, one developing-world delegate, upon learning an attendee was an American, wanted only to know, “When are you going to send us our money?”</p>
<p>Not convenient for those hoping to hustle through a new treaty, a huge, new batch of 5,000 emails recently has been disclosed in what has been dubbed “Climategate 2.0.” These emails are giving the public a shockingly candid look at the machinations of the high priests of global warming &#8211; revealing an insular cadre of climate scientists coordinating efforts to place advocacy ahead of science, stifle dissent and conceal any information that detracts from a preconceived, ideologically driven, global-warming narrative.</p>
<p>With the science sullied and unsettled and warming policies ineffective, economically devastating and subject to the worst kind of looting of tax dollars, it’s time the <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/united-nations/">United Nations</a> call an immediate halt to climate propagandizing, throw the profiteers out of the tent and enter into a new era of balance, fairness and good sense. In the meantime, there is absolutely no reason to adopt any new climate treaties or agreements in Durban.</p>
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		<title>Durban and the climate change deniers</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38824/durban-and-the-climate-change-deniers/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38824/durban-and-the-climate-change-deniers/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 28 Nov 2011 22:59:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Praful Bidwai</strong>, a political analyst, an activist and a regular columnist for the <em>Hindu</em>. He is the author of <em>The Politics of Climate Change and the Global Crisis: Mortgaging Our Future</em> (THE GUARDIAN, 28/11/11):</p>
<p>As crucial climate talks begin in <a title="Guardian: Durban climate change conference 2011" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/durban-climate-change-conference-2011">Durban</a>, attention is focused on the likely role of the major country groupings. The outcome of the UN climate conference will be largely decided by the interplay of forces between the <a title="Wikipedia: BASIC countries" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_countries">Basic</a> (Brazil, South Africa, India and China) group formed two years ago, the EU, and the umbrella group of developed countries, led by the US &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38824/durban-and-the-climate-change-deniers/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Praful Bidwai</strong>, a political analyst, an activist and a regular columnist for the <em>Hindu</em>. He is the author of <em>The Politics of Climate Change and the Global Crisis: Mortgaging Our Future</em> (THE GUARDIAN, 28/11/11):</p>
<p>As crucial climate talks begin in <a title="Guardian: Durban climate change conference 2011" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/durban-climate-change-conference-2011">Durban</a>, attention is focused on the likely role of the major country groupings. The outcome of the UN climate conference will be largely decided by the interplay of forces between the <a title="Wikipedia: BASIC countries" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_countries">Basic</a> (Brazil, South Africa, India and China) group formed two years ago, the EU, and the umbrella group of developed countries, led by the US and comprising Russia, Japan, Canada, Australia and others who oppose legally binding climate commitments.</p>
<p>For the first of these groups three issues are critical: the pressure on members to undertake binding obligations in the near future (which it opposes because of its developing world status); the fate of the <a title="Guardian: Kyoto protocol" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/kyoto-protocol">Kyoto protocol</a>, the world&#8217;s only effective legal agreement on climate; and the performance of the developed states of the global north regarding their pledges to finance the south&#8217;s climate actions.</p>
<p>All the Basic countries&#8217; greenhouse emissions are growing much faster than the world&#8217;s – in fact about five times faster in China and India. But China is far more industrialised than the others, and in a different economic league. Its per-capita carbon emissions are close to western Europe, and South Africa&#8217;s are even higher. But India&#8217;s and Brazil&#8217;s emissions are low, and comparable to those of the world&#8217;s poorest countries.</p>
<p>Brazil and South Africa say they could accept binding obligations in return for finance. South Africa as conference host is expected to work for Durban&#8217;s success, even if that means eroding the group&#8217;s solidarity. Pressure is growing for the group to accept obligations identical to those imposed on the north. China and India responded to such pressure in 2009 by voluntarily pledging to reduce the emissions intensity of their GDP by respectively 40-45% and 20-25% by 2020. The emissions savings would be higher than the emissions reductions promised by most northern countries.</p>
<p>But the global north, responsible for <a title="Wikipedia: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions">75% of accumulated CO2 emissions</a>, has made far less substantial pledges than the south, which is least responsible for climate change but whose people are the most at risk. It&#8217;s unlikely that India will agree to binding commitments. The issue is a potential deal-breaker.</p>
<p>The EU has linked it to another hypersensitive issue on which Durban could founder, the Kyoto protocol. This imposed a modest 5% emissions cut on the north. Despite some flaws, including an over-reliance on markets, Kyoto differentiates between the north and south&#8217;s responsibility for climate change and mandates that the north repay its climate debt.</p>
<p>But Kyoto&#8217;s effective, early phase, called &#8220;first commitment period&#8221;, ends next year. A second period must be negotiated if Kyoto is to survive. Russia, Japan and Canada are vehemently opposed to such an extension, and the US seems to be working quietly to kill Kyoto, which it never ratified.</p>
<p>The EU initially played a positive role in the climate talks but has since turned conservative. It says it will support a second commitment only if the Durban summit agrees binding cuts for the emerging economies. But this risks obliterating the north&#8217;s historical responsibility for climate change and jeopardising poverty eradication programmes in those countries. The developing countries, annoyed that the north hasn&#8217;t fulfilled its Kyoto obligations, have made a second period a precondition for Durban&#8217;s success.</p>
<p>Japan, Canada, France, Spain, Australia and the Netherlands will probably miss their Kyoto targets, some by as much as 30%. Others claim Kyoto compliance by buying carbon credits. <a title="Wikipedia: Carbon emission trading" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emission_trading">Carbon trading</a>, based on dubious economics, has <a title="Guardian: Emissions trading" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/emissionstrading">become a massive scandal</a>, replete with overgenerous emissions allowances, misreporting and fictitious projects.</p>
<p>The Basic countries probably can be persuaded to accept binding emissions- intensity cuts, and later emissions cuts – once their people have fulfilled their need for food, healthcare, education and electricity. Immediate cuts would be iniquitous and punish their poor. The EU can play a valuable role if it neutralises the US and brings other ditherers on board while starting talks on future obligations for the emerging economies.</p>
<p>The alternative would be a collapse at Durban – or worse, a &#8220;greenwash&#8221; outcome similar to <a title="Guardian: Copenhagen climate change conference 2009" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, where the US and Basic countries colluded to write an atrocious deal that forced a transition from emissions reductions based on science and equity to arbitrary, unambitious, paltry, voluntary national pledges. Such an outcome would guarantee a climate catastrophe.</p>
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		<title>Silent forests and famine in east Africa</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38708/silent-forests-and-famine-in-east-africa/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 25 Nov 2011 05:24:37 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Africa]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Bosques]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Wangari Maathai</strong>, the 2004 Nobel Peace Laureate and founder of the <a href="http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/">Green Belt Movement</a> (THE GUARDIAN, 25/11/11):</p>
<p><em>This article was written by Nobel peace prize winner Wangari Maathai in September, shortly before her death. It addresses some of the main issues she and the Green Belt Movement were intending to raise at the UN climate summit, which starts in Durban, South Africa, on Monday</em></p>
<p>In 2011 the worst drought in 60 years engulfed the east of Africa, forcing millions into a desperate struggle to survive. Poor governance intensified the consequences: a drought, not unusual for this part of &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38708/silent-forests-and-famine-in-east-africa/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Wangari Maathai</strong>, the 2004 Nobel Peace Laureate and founder of the <a href="http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/">Green Belt Movement</a> (THE GUARDIAN, 25/11/11):</p>
<p><em>This article was written by Nobel peace prize winner Wangari Maathai in September, shortly before her death. It addresses some of the main issues she and the Green Belt Movement were intending to raise at the UN climate summit, which starts in Durban, South Africa, on Monday</em></p>
<p>In 2011 the worst drought in 60 years engulfed the east of Africa, forcing millions into a desperate struggle to survive. Poor governance intensified the consequences: a drought, not unusual for this part of Africa, became a famine, in which untold human suffering was guaranteed.</p>
<p>Governments could have planned for the drought (after all, some regions haven&#8217;t seen good rains for four years) and helped their people adapt to the realities of global warming. They didn&#8217;t.</p>
<p>This is the <a title="" href="http://www.un.org/en/events/iyof2011/">International Year of Forests</a>. What we know is that intact forests are essential to stabilising local climates and securing the livelihoods of Africa&#8217;s farmers, herders and entrepreneurs. However, some governments, institutions and organisations are aggressively promoting the planting of exotic species of trees at the expense of indigenous ones as a solution to both drought and climate change. It is not.</p>
<p>One of the most important environmental benefits indigenous forests provide is regulating climate and rainfall patterns; through harvesting and retaining rain, these forests release water slowly to springs, streams, and rivers; this reduces the speed of water runoff and with it, soil erosion. Indigenous forests and trees also play an important role in spiritual and cultural life.</p>
<p>Exotic trees, like pine and eucalyptus, cannot offer these environmental benefits. They eliminate most other local plants and animals. Like invasive species, they create &#8220;silent forests&#8221; that are devoid of wildlife, undergrowth and water. Tragically, exotic tree plantations in the tropics have taken the place of indigenous forests, often through &#8220;slash and burn&#8221; practices that destroy biodiversity and turn what used to be forest into agricultural or grazing land.</p>
<p>Through the <a title="" href="http://www.un-redd.org/AboutREDD/tabid/582/Default.aspx">Redd+ initiative</a> (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), the international community has committed itself to protecting and rehabilitating indigenous forests. Redd+ is intended to save the world&#8217;s remaining indigenous forests, whose destruction is responsible for about 17% of climate-warming carbon dioxide (CO2) pumped into the atmosphere each year. It also seeks to bolster the capacity of communities to mitigate and adapt to the negative effects of climate change (including drought and floods).</p>
<p>For governments and private enterprise to support Redd+, and at the same time welcome the planting of exotic trees at the expense of indigenous forests, is a contradiction. This is especially true for countries like Kenya, where indigenous forest cover is less than 2% and mainly remains in watershed areas. Establishing plantations of exotic trees in watershed areas and on private farms is bad environmental, economic, and social policy. In the long run, communities will be without reliable rainfall, rivers, productive soils, and food.</p>
<p>In Kenya and other tropical countries more than 60% of the population still live in rural or forested areas. These communities will become poorer and more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change – and the nation will experience more severe and regular droughts that in turn will challenge livelihoods, food security and industry – since Kenya (like Brazil and, increasingly, China and India) relies on hydropower.</p>
<p>The benefits provided by indigenous forests and trees are worth trillions of US dollars each year. No market value is given to clean drinking water, clean air and food that sustains life, unlike the dollars that can be assigned to timber sales. The lure of money obscures the real value of essential environmental services and livelihoods of local communities as they are sacrificed for short-term economic gains.</p>
<p>Environmental damage can take a long time to take root. Some years back Kenya imported a eucalyptus clone from South Africa. In South Africa now the government&#8217;s <a title="" href="http://www.greeneconomycoalition.org/glimpses/working-water-south-africa">Working for Water programme</a> has as its main objective the removal of eucalyptus and other invasive species from sources of water. Today we are seeing that many rivers in Kenya have less water than they used to, or have dried up altogether.</p>
<p>Governments must demonstrate a commitment to standing forests and the rehabilitation of degraded forests. This can be done only if national laws that encourage continued deforestation and forest degradation are reformed; and if communities are supported to plant appropriate trees. If none of this happens, considerable financial resources will be invested without achieving reductions in poverty and other development gains. As the world can see in the east of Africa, there is no time to waste.</p>
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		<title>New Hope on Global Warming</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38591/new-hope-on-global-warming/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38591/new-hope-on-global-warming/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 23 Nov 2011 19:27:42 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Heherson Alvarez</strong>, a former Philippine senator and environment secretary, and is currently Commissioner of the Philippine Climate Commission, and <strong>John Topping, Jr</strong>., President of the Washington, DC-based Climate Institute and a co-author of Sudden and Disruptive Climate Change (Project Syndicate, 23/11/11):</p>
<p>In 1997, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted the Kyoto Protocol – an agreement among signatory states to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. In 2012, however, the Clean Development Mechanism, a system of carbon credits in which each credit represents a country’s right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide (CO2), is set to &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38591/new-hope-on-global-warming/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Heherson Alvarez</strong>, a former Philippine senator and environment secretary, and is currently Commissioner of the Philippine Climate Commission, and <strong>John Topping, Jr</strong>., President of the Washington, DC-based Climate Institute and a co-author of Sudden and Disruptive Climate Change (Project Syndicate, 23/11/11):</p>
<p>In 1997, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted the Kyoto Protocol – an agreement among signatory states to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. In 2012, however, the Clean Development Mechanism, a system of carbon credits in which each credit represents a country’s right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide (CO2), is set to expire. While policymakers struggle to extend it, carbon-finance specialists are seeking market-driven alternatives. Progress on the issue has stalled: at the last two UNFCCC conferences in Copenhagen and Cancún, members failed to arrive at an agreement on emission cuts.</p>
<p>Reduction, or mitigation, of CO2 emissions is not easy. It is also expensive. The typical measures – carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), energy conservation, and greater reliance on renewable energy sources like solar and wind – are all costly enterprises, often out of reach for poorer countries, where air pollution can be a serious problem.</p>
<p>But recent climate science may offer hope. Research indicates that black carbon (the soot from inefficient combustion in stoves, fires, engines, etc.) belongs to a class of substances that have an extremely high global warming potential. In particular, black carbon absorbs sunlight and radiates heat, thereby melting ice and snow.</p>
<p>Black carbon in the atmosphere also causes respiratory ailments, as Asian cities such as Shanghai, Bangkok, and Manila have shown. Fine soot particles can penetrate the upper defenses of the respiratory tract and settle deep in the lungs. Children, the elderly, and people with heart and lung diseases are at highest risk.</p>
<p>These substances exacerbate climate change, but they linger in the air only for short periods and are easy to remove. Black-carbon reduction thus offers developing countries an opportunity to mitigate climate change at a fraction of the cost of full CO2 reduction, while providing cleaner air for their people, simply by avoiding soot formation in engines, stoves, and other combustion devices.</p>
<p>Moreover, Voluntary Emission Reduction (VER) credits are a potential new answer to the CO2 problem. VER credits are like carbon credits, but, rather than receiving funding from Kyoto Protocol sources, the private sector provides the financing<strong>. </strong>Driven by corporations and individuals tired of UN gridlock,VER credits offer an alternative way to pay for emission-reduction projects.</p>
<p>Consider, for example, a Thai auto rickshaw or a Philippine jeepney, forms of public transportation used widely in those countries. Typically, these vehicles’ owners simply do not have the money to fix them. With VER credits, however, it is possible to fund the repair or replacement of defective engines as long as the emission reductions can be measured accurately.</p>
<p>Several issues must be resolved to ensure the success of VER credits and the emission-reduction projects that they fund. First, procedures must be established that make these financial instruments acceptable in all countries. Second, there must be internationally verifiable measurement systems in each country that hosts a VER project. Finally, a technical standard on black carbon’s global-warming potential is essential. Without internationally verifiable accurate measurements, the credits will be worthless.</p>
<p>Everyone wants cleaner air, but the costs of reducing air pollution are prohibitive in many parts of the world. By providing a financial as well as an environmental incentive, VER projects make CO2 reduction more accessible to the world’s poorer citizens. Private individuals and corporations will have to initiate such projects; we can no longer afford to wait for the UNFCCC to do the job.</p>
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		<title>An Assault on the Amazon</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38452/an-assault-on-the-amazon/</link>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 17 Nov 2011 21:09:11 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[América del Norte]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Bosques]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Brasil]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Leão Serva</strong>, journalist and a former editor in chief of Diário de São Paulo. This essay was translated by Benjamin Moser from the Portuguese (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 17/11/11):</p>
<p>In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery — a profound moral stain for a nation that prides itself today on being a multiracial democracy.</p>
<p>During the long 19th-century struggle against slavery, at a time when abolitionists in Britain were protesting the forced transfer of millions of Africans from their homelands, Brazilian leaders denounced the global abolitionist movement for interfering in the country’s internal &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38452/an-assault-on-the-amazon/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Leão Serva</strong>, journalist and a former editor in chief of Diário de São Paulo. This essay was translated by Benjamin Moser from the Portuguese (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 17/11/11):</p>
<p>In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery — a profound moral stain for a nation that prides itself today on being a multiracial democracy.</p>
<p>During the long 19th-century struggle against slavery, at a time when abolitionists in Britain were protesting the forced transfer of millions of Africans from their homelands, Brazilian leaders denounced the global abolitionist movement for interfering in the country’s internal affairs.</p>
<p>More than a century later, the same right to noninterference in internal affairs is again being invoked, this time by the agribusiness interests defending Brazil’s right to strip and burn what remains of the planet’s tropical rainforests.</p>
<p>Brazil did not ban slavery for moral or ethical reasons. It did so because the emergence of capitalist manufacturing made slavery more expensive and inefficient than wage labor. But today, there is no attempt to rethink an economic model based on destroying forests — and emitting greenhouse gases — to produce and export livestock and minerals.</p>
<p>On the contrary, Brazilian agribusiness, thanks to powerful congressional representation and the neglect of the executive branch, is pushing for a new forestry law that would condemn vast areas of rainforest to extermination.</p>
<p>The law, currently under consideration by a committee in Brazil’s Senate, would represent an ecological calamity.</p>
<p>The Amazon region, which seemed infinite only a few decades ago, is now facing the prospect of extinction. Grim scientific prognoses have come to pass in the form of disasters like the unthinkable droughts of 2005 and 2010 and the great floods of 2009. And in the last two years, the country has been plagued by a record number of forest fires, which not only reduce the forest area but also dry out the air and expose even more areas to the risk of fire.</p>
<p>That’s what happened with the Xingu National Park, in the state of Mato Grosso, in the center of the country, where more than 10,000 forest fires were recorded in 2010. Preliminary statistics indicate that as much as 10 percent of its forest area may have been destroyed in the last two years.</p>
<p>In only a few minutes, one such fire completely destroyed the Kisedje village where, a few years before, the supermodel Gisele Bündchen and the actor Leonardo DiCaprio explored the rainforest and showed their support for river preservation.</p>
<p>When Xingu National Park was established in 1961, its founders placed the headwaters of the rivers outside the park’s boundaries. At the time, nobody suspected that the forests could be destroyed. But in only 50 years, the impossible has come to pass: almost 20 percent of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed and even more has been severely degraded.</p>
<p>The park, home to Brazil’s first large Indian reservation, was meant to project an idealized image of a nation able to protect ethnic diversity; today it is evidence of the country’s incapacity to protect its natural heritage.</p>
<p>Xingu has become a green island surrounded by soybean farms and cattle ranches. The process has made the area’s climate hotter and drier. This has created fires incomprehensible to the Indians, whose ancient culture depends on agriculture by means of controlled fires. But they no longer have any control. “Fire escapes now. It doesn’t stop,” Chief Auaulukumã, the leader of the Waura Indians, one of 16 ethnic groups who live in the park, told me in September.</p>
<p>The burning of the forest has a profound impact on the Indians’ lives. “The forest is our supermarket, where we find everything: wood for building our houses, thatch for our roofs, sticks to make arrows, fruit and animals for our food,” Chief Auaulukumã said. “And it’s all getting farther and farther away because the fires are killing the forest near our village.”</p>
<p>Projections that seemed apocalyptic at the end of the 1980s — that the forest would disappear by 2030 — are now coming true. According to the World Wildlife Fund, at current rates of deforestation, 55 percent of the Amazon rainforest could be gone by 2030.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, government officials in Brasília are on the verge of slashing government programs to recover damaged forests and preserve existing ones. The congressional majority, representing the agribusiness elite, accuses the environmental movement of being subservient to foreign interests and of trying to reduce the competitiveness of Brazilian commodities.</p>
<p>Like the attacks on abolitionists more than a century ago, the criticism of outside interference in Brazil’s affairs is today being cynically used to protect an immoral law.</p>
<p>The confrontation is paralyzing the country and delaying the adoption of laws and practices that would permit sustainable development and economic growth.</p>
<p>Back then, political paralysis delayed the end of slavery by decades. Now it is allowing the destruction of the last great equatorial forest on the planet, with consequences for Chief Auaulukumã and the Indians of Xingu but also for temperatures and rainfall throughout Brazil and across the region.</p>
<p>It’s history repeating itself, the second time as tragedy.</p>
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		<title>Climate change: there is no plan B</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38441/climate-change-there-is-no-plan-b/</link>
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		<pubDate>Mon, 14 Nov 2011 22:59:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=38441</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>John Ashton</strong>, the Foreign Office&#8217;s special representative for climate change (THE GUARDIAN, 14/11/11):</p>
<p>The lesson the world is learning the hard way from the financial crisis is that there is only one boat and we are all in it. To stay afloat, we need rules tough enough to stop systemic risks becoming systemic collapses. This lesson is as true for the environment as it is for the economy.</p>
<p>A key battle in the campaign to build an effective system of global rules will shortly take place in Durban, where the UN climate negotiations reopen at the end of &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38441/climate-change-there-is-no-plan-b/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>John Ashton</strong>, the Foreign Office&#8217;s special representative for climate change (THE GUARDIAN, 14/11/11):</p>
<p>The lesson the world is learning the hard way from the financial crisis is that there is only one boat and we are all in it. To stay afloat, we need rules tough enough to stop systemic risks becoming systemic collapses. This lesson is as true for the environment as it is for the economy.</p>
<p>A key battle in the campaign to build an effective system of global rules will shortly take place in Durban, where the UN climate negotiations reopen at the end of this month. The International Energy Agency has set the scene, with the timely warning in its <a title="" href="http://www.iea.org/weo/">new World Energy Outlook </a>that we are way off track to avoid dangerous climate change, and that the window for effective action is closing fast.</p>
<p>It is fashionable to argue that a new climate treaty, based on the Kyoto architecture of legally binding carbon caps, is dead. We should, on this view, give Kyoto a decent burial and switch to plan B. This turns out to be a looser arrangement in which governments make voluntary pledges to each other. Its advocates often call themselves &#8220;realists&#8221;.</p>
<p>The case for voluntarism was first put by those who want to try less hard to deal with climate change. It has subsequently attracted support from academics and other commentators whose concern – indeed alarm – about the climate is unquestionable. They may be desperate rather than cynical, but they tend to know more about the climate than they do about diplomacy. The problem is in the politics not the architecture.</p>
<p>The choice between what needs to be done but looks impossible, and what can be done but is clearly not enough, is as old as history. It lay behind the <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1940_War_Cabinet_Crisis">struggle between Churchill and Halifax</a> as Britain faced Hitler&#8217;s tanks on the Channel coast. Nato&#8217;s success in Libya was conducted against a barrage of predictions that it would lead to years of stalemate. When there is no alternative, realism lies in expanding the limits of the possible, not in nourishing the delusion that something else might help.</p>
<p>There really is no plan B for the climate. A voluntary framework will not be enough to keep us within the 2C limit of manageable climate change. Unmanageable climate change will precipitate systemic collapses, including of our food and water security. Success or failure will depend on governments convincing investors that they are determined to enact the policies necessary to drive private capital towards a low-carbon future. In the boardroom a voluntary pledge from a government sounds rather like &#8220;maybe&#8221;. That&#8217;s why in the UK we have set legally binding carbon budgets through the Climate Change Act.</p>
<p>If a legally binding approach, including a round of post-2012 Kyoto commitments, falls off the table at Durban, most would see this as giving up on climate change. They would be right. The <a title="" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/kyoto-protocol">Kyoto protocol</a> is arguably the EU&#8217;s greatest diplomatic achievement. It inspired the world&#8217;s largest single market to take big steps towards a carbon neutral energy system, making our economies stronger and more resilient on the way. Europeans should be proud of this approach, not embarrassed by it, even if some of our global partners are not yet ready to embrace it.</p>
<p>It is true that the current cycle of Kyoto commitments only covers industrialised countries, and that some of those outside the EU are reluctant to take on new commitments. Many rightly argue that an effective regime must bind all major economies, not only the EU and those in its orbit. But we do not need this all at once any more than we needed to include everyone from the start to make the GATT work.</p>
<p>Durban needs to send a clear signal that the world is moving rapidly in this direction and that as soon as countries become sufficiently prosperous they will accept binding caps. The deal that is both available and essential must include a second phase of Kyoto commitments for those willing to accept them, plus an unambiguous &#8220;commitment to commit&#8221; by 2020 from the other major players. This would at last unblock the path to a binding regime with full participation.</p>
<p>Voluntary pledges alone will not keep the global economy open, drive trade and investment, maintain financial stability, or protect peoples against food, water and energy insecurity. If we cannot summon the will to make hard promises on climate change – the first challenge we have ever faced that will affect literally everyone – it will become much harder to do so on everything else.</p>
<p>It&#8217;s no surprise that such a complex enterprise is taking time to accomplish. The great achievements in the continuing effort to secure our mutual interests by agreeing global rules – the multilateral trade system, the regimes for arms control and nuclear non-proliferation, the European single market, the international criminal court – all took time and many steps to bring to maturity. True, on this occasion we can&#8217;t afford to take as long as some of these projects did, and we cannot wait for conflict to concentrate our minds. But there is no fundamental obstacle. The technology and capital are available. The framework we need is not only compatible with the economic needs of the major economies but essential to securing them.</p>
<p>Arnold Toynbee warned that technology was giving us the power to destroy ourselves. If we could see through the fog of current events, we might discern a fork ahead. One path points towards chronic insecurity and conflict; the other offers a prospect of co-operation and mutual prosperity. The choice between these two paths that will be foreshadowed at Durban.</p>
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		<title>Ecologismo de apariencia</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38300/ecologismo-de-apariencia/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38300/ecologismo-de-apariencia/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 14 Nov 2011 16:22:50 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=38300</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de los libros <em>El ecologista escéptico</em> y <em>En frío: la guía del ecologista escéptico para el cambio climático</em>, jefe del Centro de Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Escuela de Administración de Empresas de Copenhague. Traducción: Esteban Flamini (Project Syndicate, 14/11/11):</p>
<p>Cuando el mes pasado el nuevo gabinete de gobierno de Dinamarca se presentó ante la reina Margarita II, el ministro de desarrollo entrante quiso dejar sentadas sus credenciales ecologistas, al llegar hasta el palacio en un diminuto vehículo eléctrico de tres ruedas. El momento fotográfico fue una demostración elocuente acerca de &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38300/ecologismo-de-apariencia/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de los libros <em>El ecologista escéptico</em> y <em>En frío: la guía del ecologista escéptico para el cambio climático</em>, jefe del Centro de Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Escuela de Administración de Empresas de Copenhague. Traducción: Esteban Flamini (Project Syndicate, 14/11/11):</p>
<p>Cuando el mes pasado el nuevo gabinete de gobierno de Dinamarca se presentó ante la reina Margarita II, el ministro de desarrollo entrante quiso dejar sentadas sus credenciales ecologistas, al llegar hasta el palacio en un diminuto vehículo eléctrico de tres ruedas. El momento fotográfico fue una demostración elocuente acerca de su compromiso con el medioambiente&#8230; pero probablemente no la que el ministro pretendía dar.</p>
<p>La autonomía del vehículo eléctrico de Christian Friis Bach era insuficiente para recorrer los 30 kilómetros que separan su casa del palacio. Así que el ministro puso el miniauto eléctrico en un remolque para caballos y durante tres cuartas partes del trayecto lo llevó a la rastra con su Citroën con motor a gasolina; sólo volvió a usar el miniauto cuando las cámaras de televisión estuvieron cerca. La exhibición produjo más emisiones de dióxido de carbono que si el ministro hubiera dejado en casa el auto eléctrico y el remolque y hubiera empleado un auto común y corriente para todo el recorrido.</p>
<p>Por desgracia, no es una anécdota aislada. En 2006, mientras el laborismo gobernaba el Reino Unido, el líder del Partido Conservador, David Cameron, llamó la atención por querer darse credenciales de ecologista yendo al trabajo en bicicleta; pero el ardid se vino abajo cuando se descubrió que su maletín viajaba detrás de él en automóvil.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la hipocresía actual de los políticos en temas medioambientales no se agota en simples momentos fotográficos. En Dinamarca, y en todas partes del mundo desarrollado, nos prometen solucionar el desastre financiero internacional mediante una transición a una economía más ecológica. En los Estados Unidos, el presidente Barack Obama promueve la creación de “trabajos ecológicos”. La primera ministra australiana, Julia Gillard, introdujo un impuesto a las emisiones para “permitir un crecimiento económico sin aumento de la contaminación por dióxido de carbono”. Y al ser elegido primer ministro, David Cameron prometió conducir el “gobierno más ecologista” de la historia del Reino Unido.</p>
<p>Dinamarca puede servir como prueba de si las políticas favoritas de esos dirigentes producen o no los beneficios ambientales y económicos que prometen. A tono con el entusiasmo internacional por la inversión en energías limpias, el gobierno danés pretende lograr de aquí a 2020 un enorme aumento de la generación de energía eólica. Como gesto es significativo; pero como el país forma parte del esquema de intercambio de emisiones de la Unión Europea, desde el punto de vista de la emisión global de CO2 no implica absolutamente nada. Lo único que conseguirá será abaratar el uso del carbón en otros países de la UE.</p>
<p>De hecho, es probable que los costosos recortes de emisiones en Dinamarca y otros países conduzcan a una reubicación parcial de las emisiones de CO2 hacia países más permisivos, por ejemplo China (donde la eficiencia medioambiental de la producción es menor), y por consiguiente, a un aumento global de las emisiones de CO2. Aunque de 1990 a esta parte la Unión Europea redujo sus emisiones, al mismo tiempo aumentó sus importaciones desde China, que por sí sola produjo suficientes emisiones para contrarrestar aquellas reducciones.</p>
<p>Habrá quien diga que es necesario implementar un acuerdo amplio de reducción de emisiones a escala internacional, al estilo del protocolo de Kioto. Pero, como quedó al descubierto tras la farsa de reunión cumbre sobre el cambio climático celebrada en Copenhague en 2009, eso es imposible. Nadie espera que de la cumbre del próximo mes en Durban (Sudáfrica) salga algún acuerdo, y hay buenos motivos para este escepticismo: los Estados Unidos no pudieron poner en práctica un protocolo sobre cambio climático ni siquiera con el Partido Demócrata ocupando la Casa Blanca y con el control del Congreso, y las economías emergentes, con China e India a la cabeza, no están dispuestas a implementar medidas que obstaculicen su crecimiento.</p>
<p>Los políticos daneses (lo mismo que en otros países) aseguran que lograr una economía ecológica no costará nada, y que incluso puede ser un motor de mayor crecimiento. Lamentablemente, no es así. A escala global, existe una clara correlación positiva entre los índices de crecimiento y las emisiones de CO2. Además, casi todas las fuentes de energía limpia son todavía más caras que los combustibles fósiles, incluso cuando en el cálculo se incluyen los costos de la contaminación. No quemamos combustibles fósiles por mero afán de molestar a los ambientalistas, sino porque los combustibles fósiles posibilitaron prácticamente todos los avances materiales logrados por la civilización en los últimos siglos.</p>
<p>En Dinamarca, y en otros países, los políticos hablan como si ahora la realidad fuera otra: según ellos, la transición a una economía ecológica creará millones de nuevos “trabajos ecológicos”. Pero aunque los subsidios a las energías limpias creen más puestos de trabajo en los sectores beneficiados, también desplazarán una cantidad similar de empleos en otros sectores. Es lógico: alguien (los clientes o los contribuyentes) tiene que financiar los subsidios. El precio de la electricidad aumentará, y eso pondrá un freno a la creación de empleo en el sector privado. Si lo que se busca es crear puestos de trabajo, se lograría un crecimiento del empleo más rápido y sostenido aumentando la inversión pública en otras áreas (por ejemplo, en atención de la salud).</p>
<p>Un último ejemplo bastará para que quede claro: hace años que los políticos daneses insisten en subsidiar a la mayor fabricante de turbinas eólicas del mundo, la danesa Vestas, con el argumento de que el gasto de otros países en la tecnología de parques eólicos danesa subsidiada es un beneficio para Dinamarca. Pero en 2004, el Consejo Económico de Dinamarca examinó la situación y llegó a la conclusión de que, en términos generales, los subsidios habían provocado un perjuicio económico al país. Y lo que es peor, con las dificultades financieras actuales, las industrias de la energía solar y eólica están reduciendo la producción en los países caros y trasladando empleos a otras economías más baratas. El año pasado, Vestas despidió a 3.000 empleados en Dinamarca y Suecia.</p>
<p>A muchos políticos les gustan los momentos fotográficos y los discursos grandilocuentes sobre la “construcción de una economía ecológica”. Por desgracia, las políticas actuales para la adopción de energías limpias no ayudan al medioambiente ni a la economía. Lo más probable es que produzcan un aumento de las emisiones en China, más subcontratación con destino a la India y una reducción de las tasas de crecimiento en los bienintencionados países “ecologistas”.</p>
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		<title>Protecting Nature’s Nomads</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38187/protecting-nature%e2%80%99s-nomads/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38187/protecting-nature%e2%80%99s-nomads/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 08 Nov 2011 17:54:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=38187</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Achim Steiner</strong>, United Nations Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of the UN Environment Program (Project Syndicate, 08/11/11):</p>
<p>For the elephants that are returning to southern Angola, after herds were devastated during the country’s civil wars, the battle is far from over. Old land mines, sown during the decades of conflict that ended in 2002, are threatening the lives and limbs not only of people, but also of the growing elephant populations that are crossing into Angola from northern Botswana on ancient migration routes that continue into Zambia. Mines are a particularly stark example of how humans interfere with migratory &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/38187/protecting-nature%e2%80%99s-nomads/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Achim Steiner</strong>, United Nations Under-Secretary-General and Executive Director of the UN Environment Program (Project Syndicate, 08/11/11):</p>
<p>For the elephants that are returning to southern Angola, after herds were devastated during the country’s civil wars, the battle is far from over. Old land mines, sown during the decades of conflict that ended in 2002, are threatening the lives and limbs not only of people, but also of the growing elephant populations that are crossing into Angola from northern Botswana on ancient migration routes that continue into Zambia. Mines are a particularly stark example of how humans interfere with migratory journeys that have linked breeding and feeding sites across the globe for millennia.</p>
<p>Up to 10,000 animal species are thought to migrate. Yet, increasingly, air, water, and land routes are being destroyed by barriers, ranging from roads, fences, dams, and power lines to unsustainable hunting or fishing practices, habitat degradation, pollution, and climate change.</p>
<p>One example is the critically endangered Irrawaddy dolphin, found in the Bay of Bengal and Southeast Asia. Barriers to its migration range from entrapment in fishing nets to conditions caused by gold mining and dam building.</p>
<p>Likewise, someone strolling through Norway’s Fennoscandia region in the 1900’s would have marveled at the abundance of Lesser White-fronted Geese, which then numbered in the thousands. Today, only 20-30 breeding pairs remain – the result, according to the World Wildlife Fund, of the drainage of wetlands in countries such as Greece, and of hunting along the bird’s migration routes.</p>
<p>In North America, one of the world’s fastest land animals, the Pronghorn antelope, faces obstacles such as highways and fencing. The harsh winter in 2010 left herds stranded and hungry, blocked by fences while they burned up their fat reserves searching for ways through. Similarly, in South Africa, 12% of Blue Cranes, South Africa’s national bird, and 30% of Ludwig’s bustards are dying annually in collisions with a growing number of power lines.</p>
<p>Climate change is also having a severe impact on the world’s most peripatetic animals. Migratory species, from Monarch butterflies to humpback whales, are suffering as a result of shifts in temperature and the disruption of the traditional timing, abundance, and location of food sources.</p>
<p>The trend looks bad. But some countries are taking action. Since the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals entered into force in 1983, its membership has grown steadily to include 116 countries in Africa, Central and South America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. To date, the CMS has concluded agreements and memoranda of understanding to conserve more than 26 migratory species.</p>
<p>Thanks to the CMS, Papua New Guinea and Mozambique, for example, recently agreed on cooperative arrangements to conserve migratory dugongs, animals once thought by seafarers to be mermaids. Likewise, a 20-year agreement has recently helped to increase the number of harbor seals in the Wadden Sea, shared by Germany and the Netherlands.</p>
<p>Protecting migratory species benefits not only the animals concerned, but humans as well. A ten-year program to restore and conserve seven million hectares of wetlands in China, Iran, Kazakhstan, and Russia has improved conditions for the critically endangered Siberian crane, as well as drinking-water supplies, inland fisheries, and carbon storage.</p>
<p>Austin, Texas, is home to the world’s largest urban colony of migratory bats, which live underneath the city’s central Congress Avenue Bridge. On summer nights, hundreds of people visit to witness the bats emerge for their nightly feed. Not only do the bats act as natural pest controllers, consuming up to 4,000 mosquitoes each per night; they also underpin a local tourism industry that generates an estimated $10 million a year.</p>
<p>On November 20-25, the CMS will hold its 10th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Bergen, Norway.Among other success stories, the participants can cite the example of the tiny Pacific island nation of Palau. Many shark species are now at high risk, owing to growing consumption of their fins, which are widely believed to boost sexual potency and enhance general health. But Palau is helping to reverse this trend. Two years ago, Palau became the first country to declare its coastal waters a shark sanctuary – scientists estimate that shark-diving tours now generate around 8% of the country’s GDP, and that a single shark generates revenues from ecotourism amounting to €1.9 million ($2.6 million) over its lifetime.</p>
<p>Nature should never be prized merely for its economic value. But, in a world of competing demands and limited resources, economic considerations can help to tip decisions in favor of conservation rather than degradation. This kind of strategic thinking can help to ensure that the world’s 10,000 migratory species continue their journeys, so that future generations can also marvel at these nomads of the natural world.</p>
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		<title>Malas noticias para el clima</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37610/malas-noticias-para-el-clima/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37610/malas-noticias-para-el-clima/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 21 Oct 2011 12:52:31 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=37610</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Cayetano López</strong>, director general del CIEMAT (EL PAÍS, 20/10/11):</p>
<p>En noviembre de 2009, la cumbre del clima celebrada en Copenhague se saldó con un sonoro fracaso. Varios de los países de entre los mayores emisores de dióxido de carbono (CO2) a la atmósfera, en particular Estados Unidos y China, cerraron la discusión evitando comprometerse a reducir las emisiones. Sustituyeron un acuerdo de reducciones cuantificables, que habría sido lo único efectivo, por una declaración en la que llamaban a no sobrepasar el nivel de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en la atmósfera asociado a un aumento de la temperatura &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37610/malas-noticias-para-el-clima/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Cayetano López</strong>, director general del CIEMAT (EL PAÍS, 20/10/11):</p>
<p>En noviembre de 2009, la cumbre del clima celebrada en Copenhague se saldó con un sonoro fracaso. Varios de los países de entre los mayores emisores de dióxido de carbono (CO2) a la atmósfera, en particular Estados Unidos y China, cerraron la discusión evitando comprometerse a reducir las emisiones. Sustituyeron un acuerdo de reducciones cuantificables, que habría sido lo único efectivo, por una declaración en la que llamaban a no sobrepasar el nivel de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en la atmósfera asociado a un aumento de la temperatura media del planeta de dos grados centígrados, umbral que los expertos consideran no debe sobrepasarse a riesgo de provocar graves perturbaciones climáticas. En resumen, papel mojado, teniendo en cuenta que mantenerse por debajo de ese umbral requiere tomar medidas más exigentes en cuanto a reducción de emisiones que aquellas que no quisieron concertar. En efecto, ese aumento de temperatura se producirá si la fracción de dióxido de carbono en la atmósfera supera las 450 partes por millón (450 ppm), desde las aproximadamente 390 ppm actuales. Para no sobrepasar este límite de concentración de CO2, la Agencia Internacional de la Energía (AIE) considera que las emisiones anuales deben disminuir en un 50% respecto de la cifra actual en los próximos 40 años. Pero ¿qué está sucediendo a la vista del ambicioso, aunque implícito, programa adoptado en la cumbre y la explícita negativa a comprometerse en ninguna medida eficaz para cumplirlo? Pues lo que está sucediendo es que, lejos de disminuir, las emisiones globales están aumentando, con pequeñas oscilaciones asociadas a la crisis económica, a un ritmo que duplicaría las emisiones en ese mismo periodo de tiempo, en lugar de reducirlas a la mitad.</p>
<p>Los acuerdos de Kioto establecían que los países desarrollados deberían recortar las emisiones en un 5,2% para 2008-2012 respecto de 1990, cosa que está ocurriendo efectivamente gracias a la aportación europea, aunque el grueso del descenso se situa en los años noventa debido a la renovación de una industria pesada obsoleta muy intensiva en energía. Estados Unidos, el primer emisor del mundo en la época de la firma, rechazó ratificar los acuerdos y ha seguido aumentando sus emisiones en un 11% (frente a una disminución del 6% prevista), de forma que el objetivo marcado por Obama de reducir un 17% en 2020 respecto de 2005, aparte de estar muy lejos de hacerse realidad, retrotraería la situación al nivel aproximado de 1990. Los países emergentes han disparado sus emisiones, un 60% de aumento en tan solo los últimos siete años en el caso de China, de forma que el balance global arroja el deprimente resultado de que el conjunto de las emisiones de GEI aumentó un 45% desde 1990, un aumento porcentual idéntico al registrado de 1970 a 1990. La razón fundamental es la masiva utilización de los combustibles fósiles como fuente de energía y, más en particular, el carbón, que supone la primera materia prima energética en la mayoría de los países emergentes y también en Estados Unidos (aproximadamente el 50% de la electricidad en EE UU se genera a partir de la combustión del carbón, llegando este porcentaje a más del 80% en el caso de China).</p>
<p>Hoy China es el primer emisor de GEI a la atmósfera, lo cual era de esperar dado el crecimiento de su actividad económica y su enorme población. Lo que no era tan fácil de prever es que llegase a los límites a que ha llegado en términos de emisiones <em>per capita.</em> En efecto, desde el nivel de un tercio de la cifra correspondiente a la media europea hace tan solo una década, han llegado prácticamente a igualarla, con 6,8 toneladas por año y habitante frente a las 8,1 de Europa en su conjunto y las 6,3 de España. Por su parte, Estados Unidos sigue estando en cabeza de esta clasificación, junto con otros países como Australia y Canadá, con aproximadamente el doble de Europa, 16,9 toneladas por año y habitante. Las razones de la moderación europea, aparte de la modesta inflexión debida a la crisis, debe buscarse en las medidas de eficiencia y diversificación energéticas, en las que el crecimiento de la importancia de las energías renovables juega un papel importante.</p>
<p>La crisis tiene efectos contrapuestos en lo que se refiere a las emisiones de GEI. Por un lado, la disminución de la actividad económica implica un menor consumo energético y, por tanto, menos emisiones. Pero, por otra parte, con la crisis se ponen en cuestión los esfuerzos y los recursos todavía necesarios para que se produzca un despliegue consistente de las renovables, como se está viendo en el caso de España y en otros países. El accidente de Fukushima, por su parte, no dejará de tener consecuencias. El frenazo dado a los programas de mantenimiento, incluso de una cierta expansión, de la energía nuclear se traducirán en una mayor participación del carbón y el gas natural en el esquema de generación de electricidad. En los casos, como Japón o Alemania, en que, a consecuencia del accidente, se ha producido ya el cierre parcial del parque nuclear, la energía de reemplazo inmediato ha sido la de plantas de combustibles fósiles, nuevas o existentes que han aumentado sus horas de funcionamiento. Desde luego, los responsables políticos explican que la energía nuclear deberá ser reemplazada por renovables, pero eso, dada la dimensión del caso, exige tiempo y cuantiosos recursos por lo que esa sustitución no se está produciendo.</p>
<p>Hay que decir que España no lo está haciendo mal. Es uno de los países con una mayor presencia de renovables en su esquema de aprovisionamiento energético, con un 35% de la electricidad generada en 2010 a partir de renovables, muy cerca de los objetivos marcados para Europa en 2020. Nuestro país se comprometió en Kioto a no sobrepasar el 15% en sus emisiones de GEI en 2008-2012 con respecto a 1990, y a finales de 2010 se situaba en un 26% de aumento, cuando se había llegado a más del 50% en 2007. Aun así, hay que recordar que las emisiones <em>per capita</em> en España están claramente por debajo de la media europea. Puede argumentarse que esa relativa mejora en los últimos años se debe a la crisis económica y, sin duda, es así, aunque solo parcialmente. El aumento de la generación renovable está jugando también un importante papel como se demuestra considerando las emisiones por unidad de PIB, que ya incorporan las variaciones en la actividad económica. Pues bien, a este respecto, es preciso señalar que España las ha reducido en la última década, situándose en un 70% de las emisiones por unidad de PIB de la UE-27 y en un 60% de las correspondientes a Estados Unidos.</p>
<p>Volvamos ahora al ámbito global. El impulso que pareció cobrar la lucha contra el cambio climático en los años noventa y primeros de este siglo parece ahora debilitado. La paradoja es que este debilitamiento ocurre cuando las evidencias científicas a favor de la influencia de la actividad humana sobre el clima, especialmente a través de las emisiones masivas de GEI a la atmósfera, son cada día que pasa más concluyentes. Europa sigue proponiendo acuerdos de reducción de emisiones, pero su papel es cada vez más irrelevante, tanto por su influencia política decreciente como por el hecho de que sus emisiones suponen hoy apenas un 13% del total. El próximo mes de diciembre se celebrará en Durban una nueva cumbre que debería establecer las bases del periodo pos-Kioto, con compromisos de reducción claramente más ambiciosos y vinculantes. Todo indica que no será así y, lo que es peor, que a nadie parece importarle mucho en el fragor de la lucha contra la crisis. Los países excluidos de los acuerdos de 1992, es decir los emergentes, quieren que se prolongue el modelo de Kioto porque los excluye de obligaciones de reducción de emisiones, mientras que los países desarrollados más contaminantes, con EE UU a la cabeza, requieren un nuevo tratado que obligue a todos. A la vista del cariz que está tomando la evolución de la concentración de GEI en la atmósfera, serían necesarios acuerdos globales, que vincularan a todos aunque en medida diferente dependiendo de su potencial emisor, y más ambiciosos que los de Kioto para poder contrarrestar la peligrosa deriva en la que estamos. No me parece que estemos cerca de llegar a esos acuerdos.</p>
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		<title>El deshielo del Ártico</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37557/el-deshielo-del-artico/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37557/el-deshielo-del-artico/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 17 Oct 2011 17:24:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[América del Norte]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ártico]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=37557</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Stefan Rahmstorf</strong>, profesor de Física del Océano de la Universidad de Potsdam, y director de departamento del Instituto de Investigación sobre el Impacto Climático de Potsdam. Su libro más reciente es The Climate Crisis. Traducción de Kena Nequiz (Project Syndicate, 17/10/11):</p>
<p>Una calamidad silenciosa, en gran medida inadvertida, se ha estado revelando en las últimas semanas en el Ártico. Las consecuencias de largo plazo serán de mayor alcance que las de la crisis de deuda internacional o las de la desaparición de la dictadura libia, que son las noticias que ahora concentran la atención de los medios de &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37557/el-deshielo-del-artico/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Stefan Rahmstorf</strong>, profesor de Física del Océano de la Universidad de Potsdam, y director de departamento del Instituto de Investigación sobre el Impacto Climático de Potsdam. Su libro más reciente es The Climate Crisis. Traducción de Kena Nequiz (Project Syndicate, 17/10/11):</p>
<p>Una calamidad silenciosa, en gran medida inadvertida, se ha estado revelando en las últimas semanas en el Ártico. Las consecuencias de largo plazo serán de mayor alcance que las de la crisis de deuda internacional o las de la desaparición de la dictadura libia, que son las noticias que ahora concentran la atención de los medios de comunicación. El drama –más precisamente, la tragedia- que ahora tiene lugar en el Norte es la rápida desaparición de la capa de hielo polar, la característica principal del Océano Ártico.</p>
<p>En septiembre, la capa de hielo en el Océano Ártico se derritió hasta igualar el mínimo histórico que se registró en septiembre de 2007. Con 4.4 millones de kilómetros cuadrados de superficie, era la capa más pequeña desde que se empezaron a hacer observaciones con satélite hace cuarenta años, con 40% menos hielo que en los años setenta y ochenta.</p>
<p>En 2007, ese mínimo histórico sorprendió a los científicos, que lo consideraron un valor atípico dentro de una tendencia general más lenta de adelgazamiento de la capa de hielo del océano. Culpamos a las condiciones inusuales de los vientos en el Ártico ese año. Sin embargo, los datos recopilados por el satélite desde ese entonces nos han hecho ver nuestro error. Este año, se registró un nivel igualmente bajo sin que hubiera condiciones excepcionales en los vientos. Ahora es evidente que estamos presenciando un adelgazamiento continuo y también acelerado de la capa de hielo del océano.</p>
<p>Si esto continúa, probablemente veremos un Polo Norte sin hielo dentro de 10 o 20 años. Sí, suena increíble. Sin embargo, hay razones para temer que la tasa del adelgazamiento seguirá aumentando, y que las imágenes de satélite de un océano polar azul dejarán de estar en las portadas de los semanarios mucho antes de lo que nos imaginamos.</p>
<p>La razón es que el hielo es cada vez más delgado. Esto es más difícil de medir que el área de la capa polar, que se observa fácilmente a través de satélites. Sin embargo, varios datos, incluidos las mediciones recopiladas por buques y aeronaves, confirman que el hielo ha adelgazado aproximadamente la mitad tomando como referencia los años ochenta. En términos físicos tiene sentido dado el rápido calentamiento en el Ártico.</p>
<p>Si la capa polar se encoge y adelgaza al mismo tiempo, entonces la contracción del área es estable al principio y se acelera hacia el final, cuando el hielo restante se haga todavía más delgado y vulnerable al derretimiento. Me temo que esto es lo que está sucediendo ahora.</p>
<p>Las estimaciones anuales muestran que en 2011 se alcanzó un mínimo histórico del volumen global de hielo –que se mide según su área y espesor- en el Océano Ártico. El volumen de hielo ya ha reducido en un tercio respecto del tamaño que tenía en los años ochenta. Si continua la tendencia a la baja de los últimos veinte años en el volumen de hielo a un rimo constante, prácticamente no habrá hielo dentro de 10 o 15 años.</p>
<p>Por lo tanto, sigue sin disminuir el calentamiento global causado por nuestras emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. El 2010 fue uno de los dos años más calurosos registrados a nivel global, a pesar de la actividad solar extremadamente baja. Por consiguiente, es casi seguro que el calentamiento –incluido el del Ártico- continuará en las próximas décadas. Y el hielo seguirá derritiéndose.</p>
<p>Esta pérdida de hielo no solo pondrá de cabeza el ecosistema del Ártico, lo que afectará a muchos animales que están adaptados a la vida en el hielo marino. Nos afectará a todos. Si desaparece el hielo del Ártico durante los meses de verano, perderemos un espejo gigante que refleja el calor solar hacia el espacio y ayuda a mantener fresco el planeta. Esta pérdida de hielo amplificará el calentamiento global y alterará los patrones climáticos.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la pérdida de hielo amplificará el calentamiento especialmente en el Ártico –de hecho, ya está sucediendo. Además, el calentamiento desproporcionado del Ártico también está empezando a afectar a uno de los componentes más importantes del sistema climático global: la placa de hielo de Groenlandia. Si esta estructura gigante se derrite, el nivel del mar en todo el mundo subiría aproximadamente 7 metros.</p>
<p>Y al parecer este derretimiento ya está empezando. Como revelaron datos de la NASA en los primeros meses del año, la placa de hielo de Groenlandia está perdiendo masa a un ritmo acelerado. Como lo muestran los medidores de marea en todo el mundo, los niveles del mar están de hecho aumentando.</p>
<p>A mayor calentamiento más rápidamente sube el nivel del mar. Mientras que el nivel del mar permaneció casi constante durante los siglos posteriores a la Edad Media, a lo largo del siglo XX aumentó a una tasa promedio de casi dos centímetros por década. En los últimos veinte años la tasa ha rebasado los tres centímetros por decenio.</p>
<p>Si bien es difícil predecir el nivel futuro del mar, la mayor parte de los expertos estarían de acuerdo en que no controlar el calentamiento global  podría conducir en los próximos siglos a un aumento medido en metros, lo que pondría en riesgo la existencia de muchas ciudades costeras así como naciones insulares enteras. Incluso para finales de este siglo, el nivel del mar bien podría ser de un metro más de lo que es actualmente, a menos que actuemos rápida y decisivamente para reducir nuestras emisiones de gas de efecto invernadero.</p>
<p>Por esta razón ignoramos el silencioso derretimiento del Norte bajo nuestro propio riesgo. Es una señal de calentamiento global –y una señal de advertencia seria para todos nosotros.</p>
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		<title>The Amazon or Oil?</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37398/the-amazon-or-oil/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37398/the-amazon-or-oil/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 06 Oct 2011 08:33:51 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecuador]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=37398</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p><strong>Eric Chivian</strong>, who shared the 1985 Nobel Peace Prize, is the founder and Director of the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School. <strong>Rigoberta Menchú</strong> is a Guatemalan activist for the rights of indigenous people and a winner of the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize. For more information on how to save Yasuní-ITT, please visit <a href="http://www.yasunisupport.org/" target="_blank">http://www.yasunisupport.org</a> (Project Syndicate, 06/10/11):</p>
<p>Charles Darwin would appreciate the irony of Yasuní National Park in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Yasuní, home to one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity in the world, is itself engaged in what Darwin called “the struggle for &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/37398/the-amazon-or-oil/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Eric Chivian</strong>, who shared the 1985 Nobel Peace Prize, is the founder and Director of the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School. <strong>Rigoberta Menchú</strong> is a Guatemalan activist for the rights of indigenous people and a winner of the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize. For more information on how to save Yasuní-ITT, please visit <a href="http://www.yasunisupport.org/" target="_blank">http://www.yasunisupport.org</a> (Project Syndicate, 06/10/11):</p>
<p>Charles Darwin would appreciate the irony of Yasuní National Park in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Yasuní, home to one of the highest concentrations of biodiversity in the world, is itself engaged in what Darwin called “the struggle for existence.” A proposed drilling project in Yasuní’s Ishpingo-Tambococha-Tiputini (ITT) oilfields would tap into a reservoir estimated to be worth more than $10 billion – and permanently destroy this global treasure.</p>
<p>Darwin, who developed his theory of evolution in Ecuador’s famous Galapagos Islands, recognized the importance of the relationships between species. He observed that no species – including humans – can exist in isolation from other living things. Each organism relies on natural processes to survive and contributes to nature’s balance – and ultimately, to the survival of all life on our planet.</p>
<p>Yet in Yasuní, a tragic tradeoff between man and his environment looms.</p>
<p>Amid the richness of the Ecuadorian Amazon, one-third of the country’s population lives below the poverty line. For many Ecuadorians, the economic opportunity beneath Yasuní – equivalent to roughly one-fifth of Ecuador’s proven oil reserves – raises a painful choice between biodiversity and wealth. Understandably, many would choose to drill. Indeed, in 2007, crude and refined oil products accounted for more than half of Ecuador’s export revenue.</p>
<p>But extracting the more than 800 million barrels of crude oil under Yasuní, and burning the fuels made from that oil, would lead to more than 400 million metric tons of carbon-dioxide emissions, equal to the annual carbon footprint of Brazil! The resulting deforestation would add another 800 million metric tons to the atmosphere’s carbon burden, an amount equal to what Germany emits each year. And the permanent damage to thousands of species – and to the indigenous Amazonian Tagaeri and Taromenane tribes, which remain isolated from the world – would be too profound to quantify.</p>
<p>The discovery beneath Yasuní has sparked a heated debate, but a majority of Ecuadorians still prefers to leave the oil in the ground and the Yasuní intact, despite the financial sacrifices that this implies. A novel “Plan A,” announced in 2007 by President Rafael Correa, would prevent oil extraction in Yasuní if money could be raised from the international community to offset some of the economic losses that would result from a drilling ban.</p>
<p>The United Nations responded to Ecuador’s plan, and in 2010 established a special fund for the initiative, the Yasuní ITT Trust Fund. The UN Development Program administers the fund, and an independent steering committee oversees its operations. The fund’s goal now is to raise $3.6 billion from foreign governments, private companies, and individuals over the next 13 years. By urging the international community to provide less than half of the possible revenue, Ecuador and the UNDP are hoping to promote a spirit of global responsibility for Yasuní’s preservation.</p>
<p>A drilling ban in Yasuní would have tremendous benefits for both Ecuador and the world. The funds raised from the initiative would be invested in Ecuador’s alternative-energy industry, with the goal of changing the country’s entire energy matrix. The eventual returns from the new energy systems would then be invested in social and environmental programs.</p>
<p>Moreover, contributors to the UNDP-administered Yasuní ITT Trust Fund will be given Yasuní Guarantee Certificates (CGYs), a legally recognized financial instrument that requires Ecuador’s government to repay the face value of the contributions if the fund is not successful. With this plan, Ecuador would emerge as an international model for sustainable energy policy.</p>
<p>The Yasuní ITT Trust Fund seeks $100 million by the end of this year. If this amount is not raised, the call for drilling will be almost unstoppable. The international community must not let this happen.</p>
<p>We need to recognize, as Darwin did, that there are profound interconnections among all living things. Each of us is dependent on a vast array of plants, animals, and microbes and the life-giving services they provide.</p>
<p>Yasuní’s enormous biodiversity will lead to new medicines and medical-research models to treat human diseases and relieve human suffering – but only if it wins its struggle for survival. It will if we recognize that Yasuní does not belong just to Ecuador, but to all of us, and that it is our responsibility to protect it for all time.</p>
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		<title>Put the brakes on deep-sea fishing</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36913/put-the-brakes-on-deep-sea-fishing/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36913/put-the-brakes-on-deep-sea-fishing/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 13 Sep 2011 19:51:02 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Océanos]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Pesca]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Karen Sack</strong>, director of International Ocean Conservation at Pew Environment Group (THE WASHINGTON POST, 13/09/11):</p>
<p>Deep below the ocean surface lies a cold, hostile environment where the light of day cannot penetrate. The life-forms inhabiting this murky world grow slowly, mature late and take time to reproduce. Many species live 30 years or more, some up to the grand age of 150. Most have not yet been defined by science.</p>
<p>This dark void, which lies beyond any country’s national jurisdiction, is in trouble.</p>
<p>The world’s deep-sea catch is steadily declining, and the high vulnerability of these fish populations &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36913/put-the-brakes-on-deep-sea-fishing/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Karen Sack</strong>, director of International Ocean Conservation at Pew Environment Group (THE WASHINGTON POST, 13/09/11):</p>
<p>Deep below the ocean surface lies a cold, hostile environment where the light of day cannot penetrate. The life-forms inhabiting this murky world grow slowly, mature late and take time to reproduce. Many species live 30 years or more, some up to the grand age of 150. Most have not yet been defined by science.</p>
<p>This dark void, which lies beyond any country’s national jurisdiction, is in trouble.</p>
<p>The world’s deep-sea catch is steadily declining, and the high vulnerability of these fish populations and diverse marine ecosystems is well documented. Last year, officials from the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea declared that in the Northeast Atlantic, 100 percent of all targeted deep-sea species have been fished “<a href="http://www.ices.dk/committe/acom/comwork/report/2010/Special%20Requests/EC%20Status%20of%20fish%20stocks.pdf">outside safe biological limits</a>.” Yet the fishing continues, via trawlers dragging enormous weighted nets that, in a single pass, scrape clean the ocean floor.</p>
<p>This week, the United Nations will conduct<a href="http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/workshop_orgwork_en.pdf">a review of high-seas fishing practices</a> that could ultimately help save deep-sea ecosystems. Since 2004, a series of resolutions has been negotiated and approved, outlining a plan to safeguard the biological diversity of the deep ocean. Now fishing countries will once again be assessed to see if they have done what they pledged to do: protect deep-sea life while fishing in a sustainable way.</p>
<p>The answer, according to experts and environmental organizations around the world, is no.</p>
<p>After nearly a decade of talk, scientists and conservationists are asking the United Nations to take action and declare that any deep-sea fishing that doesn’t meet the terms of these resolutions is illegal, unregulated and unreported, and must be stopped.</p>
<p>While enforcement of these regulations is critical, what makes the destruction of the deep sea truly senseless is its cost — which is paid for by public money. Fisheries scientist <a href="http://www.fisheries.ubc.ca/faculty-staff/daniel-pauly">Daniel Pauly</a> and economist <a href="http://www.fisheries.ubc.ca/faculty-staff/rashid-sumaila">Ussif Rashid Sumaila</a> of the University of British Columbia examined subsidies to international bottom-trawl fleets and <a href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X09001663">found that governments around the globe pay $152 million per year</a> to prop up these fisheries.</p>
<p>Government subsidization of fishing is not new. But without substantial taxpayer support, these operations would incur losses of $50 million annually. In addition to the waste and cost, deep-sea catches are also relatively insignificant as money-earners for major economies. The European Union, for example, has one of the world’s largest deep-sea fishing fleets, yet its catches represent just 2 percent of the total value of all E.U. fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic. Meanwhile, the destruction from the deep-sea trawlers is irreparable.</p>
<p>Bottom fishing on the high seas is a global activity carried out by a small number of countries. A technical paper prepared for the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in 2008 that 285 vessels worldwide are engaged in these high-seas operations and are registered to 27 flag states. The European community has the largest number of vessels (103), with the majority flagged to Spain. Other flag states with a relatively large number of vessels include New Zealand, South Korea, Russia and Australia. Deep-sea fish products are typically consumed in Europe, the United States and Japan.</p>
<p>We are spending millions in public funds to wreck seascapes that take millennia to form. Governments must realize that deep-sea fishing not only wastes taxpayer dollars but that destroying the unique marine life in the deep sea for a relatively small catch of slow-growing fish is a bad investment.</p>
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		<title>Going Green but Getting Nowhere</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36837/going-green-but-getting-nowhere/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36837/going-green-but-getting-nowhere/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 08 Sep 2011 15:58:41 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Gernot Wagner</strong>, an economist at the Environmental Defense Fund and the author of the forthcoming <em>But Will the Planet Notice?</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 08/09/11):</p>
<p>You reduce, reuse and recycle. You turn down plastic and paper. You avoid out-of-season grapes. You do all the right things.</p>
<p>Good.</p>
<p>Just know that it won’t save the tuna, protect the rain forest or stop global warming. The changes necessary are so large and profound that they are beyond the reach of individual action.</p>
<p>You refuse the plastic bag at the register, believing this one gesture somehow makes a difference, and then &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36837/going-green-but-getting-nowhere/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Gernot Wagner</strong>, an economist at the Environmental Defense Fund and the author of the forthcoming <em>But Will the Planet Notice?</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 08/09/11):</p>
<p>You reduce, reuse and recycle. You turn down plastic and paper. You avoid out-of-season grapes. You do all the right things.</p>
<p>Good.</p>
<p>Just know that it won’t save the tuna, protect the rain forest or stop global warming. The changes necessary are so large and profound that they are beyond the reach of individual action.</p>
<p>You refuse the plastic bag at the register, believing this one gesture somehow makes a difference, and then carry your takeout meal back to your car for a carbon-emitting trip home.</p>
<p>Say you’re willing to make real sacrifices. Sell your car. Forsake your air-conditioner in the summer, turn down the heat in the winter. Try to become no-impact man. You would, in fact, have no impact on the planet. Americans would continue to emit an average of 20 tons of carbon dioxide a year; Europeans, about 10 tons.</p>
<p>What about going bigger? You are the pope with a billion followers, and let’s say all of them take your advice to heart. If all Catholics decreased their emissions to zero overnight, the planet would surely notice, but pollution would still be rising. Of course, a billion people, whether they’re Catholic or adherents of any other religion or creed, will do no such thing. Two weeks of silence in a Buddhist yoga retreat in the Himalayas with your BlackBerry checked at the door? Sure. An entire life voluntarily lived off the grid? No thanks.</p>
<p>And that focuses only on those who can decrease their emissions. When your average is 20 tons per year, going down to 18 tons is as easy as taking a staycation. But if you are among the four billion on the planet who each emit one ton a year, you have nowhere to go but up.</p>
<p>Leading scientific groups and most climate scientists say we need to decrease global annual greenhouse gas emissions by at least half of current levels by 2050 and much further by the end of the century. And that will still mean rising temperatures and sea levels for generations.</p>
<p>So why bother recycling or riding your bike to the store? Because we all want to do something, anything. Call it “action bias.” But, sadly, individual action does not work. It distracts us from the need for collective action, and it doesn’t add up to enough. Self-interest, not self-sacrifice, is what induces noticeable change. Only the right economic policies will enable us as individuals to be guided by self-interest and still do the right thing for the planet.</p>
<p>Every ton of carbon dioxide pollution causes around $20 of damage to economies, ecosystems and human health. That sum times 20 implies $400 worth of damage per American per year. That’s not damage you’re going to do in the distant future; that’s damage each of us is doing right now. Who pays for it?</p>
<p>We pay as a society. My cross-country flight adds fractions of a penny to everyone else’s cost. That knowledge leads some of us to voluntarily chip in a few bucks to “offset” our emissions. But none of these payments motivate anyone to fly less. It doesn’t lead airlines to switch to more fuel-efficient planes or routes. If anything, airlines by now use voluntary offsets as a marketing ploy to make green-conscious passengers feel better. The result is planetary socialism at its worst: we all pay the price because individuals don’t.</p>
<p>It won’t change until a regulatory system compels us to pay our fair share to limit pollution accordingly. Limit, of course, is code for “cap and trade,” the system that helped phase out lead in gasoline in the 1980s, slashed acid rain pollution in the 1990s and is now bringing entire fisheries back from the brink. “Cap and trade” for carbon is beginning to decrease carbon pollution in Europe, and similar models are slated to do the same from California to China.</p>
<p>Alas, this approach has been declared dead in Washington, ironically by self-styled free-marketers. Another solution, a carbon tax, is also off the table because, well, it’s a tax.</p>
<p>Never mind that markets are truly free only when everyone pays the full price for his or her actions. Anything else is socialism. The reality is that we cannot overcome the global threats posed by greenhouse gases without speaking the ultimate inconvenient truth: getting people excited about making individual environmental sacrifices is doomed to fail.</p>
<p>High school science tells us that global warming is real. And economics teaches us that humanity must have the right incentives if it is to stop this terrible trend.</p>
<p>Don’t stop recycling. Don’t stop buying local. But add mastering some basic economics to your to-do list. Our future will be largely determined by our ability to admit the need to end planetary socialism. That’s the most fundamental of economics lessons and one any serious environmentalist ought to heed.</p>
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		<title>Fearing a Planet Without Apes</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36568/fearing-a-planet-without-apes/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36568/fearing-a-planet-without-apes/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 21 Aug 2011 21:57:40 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>John C. Mitani</strong>, a professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 21/08/11):</p>
<p>Viewers of this summer’s Hollywood blockbuster “Rise of the Planet of the Apes” may be surprised to learn that before our earliest ancestors arrived on the scene roughly seven million years ago, apes really did rule the planet. As many as 40 kinds roamed Eurasia and Africa between 10 and 25 million years ago. Only five types remain. Two live in Asia, the gibbon and orangutan; another three, the chimpanzee, bonobo and gorilla, dwell in Africa. All five are endangered, several &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36568/fearing-a-planet-without-apes/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>John C. Mitani</strong>, a professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 21/08/11):</p>
<p>Viewers of this summer’s Hollywood blockbuster “Rise of the Planet of the Apes” may be surprised to learn that before our earliest ancestors arrived on the scene roughly seven million years ago, apes really did rule the planet. As many as 40 kinds roamed Eurasia and Africa between 10 and 25 million years ago. Only five types remain. Two live in Asia, the gibbon and orangutan; another three, the chimpanzee, bonobo and gorilla, dwell in Africa. All five are endangered, several critically so. All may face extinction.</p>
<p>A decade ago, Congress stepped forward with a relatively cheap but vitally important effort to protect these apes through innovative conservation programs in Africa and Asia that combined taxpayer dollars with private money. But attempts to reauthorize the Great Apes Conservation Fund have gotten stuck in Congress and may become a victim of the larger debate over the national debt.</p>
<p>Hollywood’s depiction of apes as cunning — if not conniving — creatures comes close to reality. Fifty years ago, Jane Goodall’s observations of chimpanzees’ using tools and eating meat demonstrated just how similar apes are to humans. Subsequent fieldwork has underscored this point.</p>
<p>Gibbons, long thought to be monogamous, occasionally mate with individuals outside their group. Orangutans fashion tools to extract seeds that are otherwise difficult to obtain. Gorillas engage in conversational vocal exchanges. Bonobos appear to have sex not only to reproduce but also to relieve stress. Male chimpanzees form coalitions to kill their neighbors and take over their territory. If all of this seems human, there is a good reason: The apes are our closest living relatives, and in anatomy, genetics and behavior, they are much more similar to us than they are to other animals.</p>
<p>Apes fascinate and captivate us like no other species. They are prime attractions at zoos, and scientists from disciplines ranging from anthropology to biology and psychology study them closely in captivity and in the wild. As our first cousins in the primate family, apes help us to understand what makes us human.</p>
<p>I have been lucky to study all five kinds of apes during 33 years of fieldwork in Africa and Asia. When I look into the eyes of an ape, something stares back at me that seems familiar. Perhaps it is a shock of recognition, or a thoughtfulness not seen in the eyes of a frog, bird or cat. The penetrating stare makes me wonder, “What is this individual thinking?”</p>
<p>But as the human population expands, ape numbers continue to dwindle. In previous versions of the “Planet of the Apes” films, greed and consumption by humanlike apes threatened the world. In reality, it is these all-too-human traits that imperil apes.</p>
<p>Habitat destruction because of human activity, including logging, oil exploration and subsistence farming, is the biggest concern. Hunting is another major problem, especially in West and Central Africa, where a thriving “bush meat” trade severely threatens African apes. Poachers are now entering once-impenetrable forests on roads built for loggers and miners. Recently, periodic outbreaks of deadly diseases that can infect humans and apes, like Ebola, have begun to ravage populations of chimpanzees and gorillas.</p>
<p>The Great Apes Conservation Act, enacted in 2000, authorized the spending of $5 million annually over five years to help protect apes in the wild. The act was re-authorized in 2005 for another five years. The program matches public with private dollars to maximize the impact. Since 2006, for example, $21 million in federal dollars spent by the Great Ape Conservation Fund generated an additional $25 million in private grants and support from other governments.</p>
<p>The federal money may not sound like much in this era of “big science.” But those dollars have gone a long way to protect apes in countries that are desperately poor and politically volatile. The money pays for protecting habitat, battling poachers and educating local populations about the importance of these apes.</p>
<p>For instance, in Indonesia, where habitat loss threatens the few remaining populations of orangutans, money has been earmarked to block the conversion of forests to commercial oil palm and rubber plantations. In Congo, home to the extremely rare mountain gorilla, alternative fuels have been introduced to discourage the cutting of forests for charcoal production. In Gabon, the program has paid for law enforcement training for park rangers battling poachers. The list goes on. In all, last year, the Great Apes Conservation Fund helped to underwrite more than 50 programs in 7 Asian and 12 African countries. If Congress does not reauthorize the act, it could make it much harder to continue even the modest appropriations the great apes fund now receives.</p>
<p>A planet without apes is not sci-fi fantasy. If we do not take action now, sometime in the future, as Hollywood continues to produce sequels to the classic 1968 film, our children and our children’s children will ask with wonder, and perhaps a certain amount of anger, why we stood by idly while these remarkable creatures were driven to extinction.</p>
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		<title>No to Arctic Drilling</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36418/no-to-arctic-drilling/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36418/no-to-arctic-drilling/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 18 Aug 2011 21:46:46 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[América del Norte]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ártico]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[EEUU]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Frances G. Beinecke</strong>, the president of the Natural Resources Defense Council who served on the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 18/08/11):</p>
<p>About 55,000 gallons of oil have escaped into the North Sea since last week from a leaky pipeline operated by Royal Dutch Shell, about 100 miles off Scotland.</p>
<p>Last year, Americans watched in mounting fury as the oil industry and the federal government struggled for five disastrous months to contain the much larger BP blowout in the Gulf of Mexico.</p>
<p>Now imagine the increased danger and &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36418/no-to-arctic-drilling/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Frances G. Beinecke</strong>, the president of the Natural Resources Defense Council who served on the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 18/08/11):</p>
<p>About 55,000 gallons of oil have escaped into the North Sea since last week from a leaky pipeline operated by Royal Dutch Shell, about 100 miles off Scotland.</p>
<p>Last year, Americans watched in mounting fury as the oil industry and the federal government struggled for five disastrous months to contain the much larger BP blowout in the Gulf of Mexico.</p>
<p>Now imagine the increased danger and difficulty of trying to cope with a similar debacle off Alaska’s northern coast, where waters are sealed by pack ice for eight months of each year, gales roil fog-shrouded seas with waves up to 20 feet high and the temperature, combined with the wind chill, feels like 10 degrees below zero by late September.</p>
<p>That’s the nightmare the Obama administration is inviting with its preliminary approval of a plan by Shell to drill four exploratory wells beginning next summer in the harsh and remote frontier of the Beaufort Sea, off the North Slope of Alaska.</p>
<p>The green light to drill now awaits Shell’s receiving the necessary permits from various federal agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service and the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement.</p>
<p>The administration should put on the brakes. This is a reckless gamble we cannot afford. We can’t prevent an Arctic blowout any more than we can avert disaster in the Gulf of Mexico or the North Sea. We don’t have the infrastructure, the knowledge or the experience to cope with one if it occurs. It’s irresponsible to drill in these waters unless we have those capabilities.</p>
<p>When the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling, appointed by President Obama in May 2010, reported our findings and recommendations earlier this year, we specifically cited the need to address these shortcomings before exposing Arctic waters to this kind of risk.</p>
<p>We need comprehensive research on the vibrant yet little understood Arctic ecosystems, which are home to rich fisheries of salmon, cod and char, and habitat for beluga whales, golden eagles and spotted seals.</p>
<p>We need containment and response plans tailored to the demands of marine operations under some of the most unforgiving conditions anywhere on earth.</p>
<p>And we must be realistic about the kind of backup available in a place 1,000 miles from the nearest United States Coast Guard station.</p>
<p>Shell’s latest spill, in the North Sea, reminds us of the peril we court by ignoring these urgent needs.</p>
<p>When BP’s Macondo well blew out last year, killing 11 workers aboard the Deepwater Horizon, Americans believed the damage would be quickly contained.</p>
<p>The Gulf of Mexico, after all, is the epicenter of the global offshore oil industry, home to hundreds of companies that specialize in drilling wells beneath the sea. There were plenty of ships in the region, from the shrimping fleet to the Coast Guard, available to help the efforts to cap the well and contain the spill.</p>
<p>And yet, in the five months it took to kill the runaway well, 170 million gallons of toxic crude oil poured into the gulf.</p>
<p>The systems that we were promised would avert catastrophe by preventing or containing a blowout all failed one by one.</p>
<p>And cleanup operations couldn’t save the marine life and birds that died, the 650 miles of coastline that was oiled or the deep water habitat now carpeted in crude, despite the efforts of nearly 50,000 workers using nearly 7,000 ships and boats.</p>
<p>Now comes Shell, claiming in its drilling application that its blowout preventers will work. If not, Shell asserts, it can quickly seal the well. And, should oil escape, the company insists, it will have booms, skimmers and helicopters at the ready.</p>
<p>Upon those thin hopes the newly constituted Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement recently gave Shell preliminary approval to attempt this high-wire act in the Arctic.</p>
<p>We have yet to embrace the lessons of the BP blowout, the worst oil spill in our history. While the bureau, formerly known as the Minerals Management Service, has improved drilling rules in helpful ways, Congress has yet to pass legislation to protect our waters, workers and wildlife from the dangers of offshore drilling.</p>
<p>Those dangers are only greater in the harsh and remote Arctic waters. Before we go to the ends of the earth in pursuit of oil, we need deeper knowledge, better technology to prevent blowouts and to clean up after accidents, and greater expertise to protect Alaska’s Arctic waters, one of our oceans’ last frontiers, from grave and needless risk.</p>
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		<title>Una luz tenue sobre el calentamiento global</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36243/una-luz-tenue-sobre-el-calentamiento-global/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36243/una-luz-tenue-sobre-el-calentamiento-global/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 12 Aug 2011 13:24:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=36243</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist y Cool It, director del Centro del Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Escuela de Negocios de Copenhague (Project Syndicate, 12/08/11):</p>
<p>En medio de una creciente ola de preocupación por el cambio climático, muchos países -incluidos Brasil, Australia, Estados Unidos y los miembros de la Unión Europea- sancionaron leyes en los años 2000 que prohibían o restringían sustancialmente el acceso a las bombillas incandescentes. La intención era entendible: si todos en el mundo cambiaran la mayoría de las bombillas por lámparas fluorescentes compactas (CFL por su sigla en inglés) &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36243/una-luz-tenue-sobre-el-calentamiento-global/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist y Cool It, director del Centro del Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto de la Escuela de Negocios de Copenhague (Project Syndicate, 12/08/11):</p>
<p>En medio de una creciente ola de preocupación por el cambio climático, muchos países -incluidos Brasil, Australia, Estados Unidos y los miembros de la Unión Europea- sancionaron leyes en los años 2000 que prohibían o restringían sustancialmente el acceso a las bombillas incandescentes. La intención era entendible: si todos en el mundo cambiaran la mayoría de las bombillas por lámparas fluorescentes compactas (CFL por su sigla en inglés) de bajo consumo, podríamos ahorrar el 3,5% de toda la electricidad, o el 1% de nuestras emisiones de  CO2.</p>
<p>El intento actual por parte de los republicanos en el Congreso norteamericano de volver atrás en el esfuerzo de Estados Unidos por prohibir las bombillas incandescentes reanimó esta discusión. Muchos sostienen que la agenda está siendo impulsada por los negadores del cambio climático y su actitud cavernícola. Pero vale la pena revisar la premisa de que prohibir cosas es la manera más inteligente de abordar el calentamiento global.</p>
<p>Seamos claros: efectivamente necesitamos hacer algo para enfrentar el cambio climático. Pero esto no significa que debamos simplemente recortar todas las emisiones. Quemar combustibles fósiles también tiene beneficios importantes, y deberíamos sopesar esos beneficios en relación con los costos.</p>
<p>Un impuesto al carbono debería ser equivalente al daño que produce. El mejor cálculo de esto es aproximadamente 7 dólares por tonelada de CO2 o 0,06 dólares por galón de gasolina (0,015 euros el litro). Los países más desarrollados ya tienen un impuesto de esta envergadura (y muchas veces superior) a la electricidad y los combustibles fósiles, aunque éste también incorpora los costos de la contaminación ambiental y la inseguridad del suministro.</p>
<p>Si bien comprar las CFL cuesta más, éstas resultan mucho más baratas a lo largo de su vida útil, porque consumen mucha menos energía (mucho más si se tiene en cuenta el costo del CO2 incluido en impuestos a la electricidad). En consecuencia, teniendo en cuenta una simple base costo-beneficio, parece tener sentido que la mayoría de la gente pase de las bombillas incandescentes a la nueva tecnología más verde.</p>
<p>Eso es lo maravilloso de las soluciones tecnológicas al cambio climático: si una opción alternativa es más barata, la gente empezará a usarla. En mi casa usamos CFL, y me alegra saber que estoy causando menos emisiones de CO2 y ahorrando dinero.</p>
<p>¿Por qué, entonces, es necesario tener que prohibir las antiguas bombillas? La razón es que el costo monetario es sólo un factor. A mucha gente le molesta que las CFL tarden tanto en &#8220;calentarse&#8221;. O creen que su luz es &#8220;graciosa&#8221;. O temen que las bombillas puedan diseminar mercurio venenoso si se rompen. Para algunos, las bombillas de bajo consumo pueden causar ataques epilépticos y migrañas.</p>
<p>El costo inicial también es un factor, especialmente para quienes tienen presupuestos bajos. Y en lugares donde las luces no se utilizan demasiado, una bombilla incandescente de menor precio puede costar menos en general que la alternativa de bajo consumo.</p>
<p>Uno podría pensar que la gente está en condiciones de elegir por sí sola cuáles son las bombillas correctas. Pero quienes defienden la eliminación de las bombillas incandescentes sostienen que ellos tienen más conocimiento del asunto. Como dijo recientemente el secretario de Energía de Estados Unidos, Steven Chu, &#8220;Estamos descartando una alternativa que sigue haciéndole perder dinero a la gente&#8221;.</p>
<p>Dejando de lado otras posibles objeciones a esta opinión, existe el problema de que esto presupone que <em>todas</em> las bombillas incandescentes cuestan menos de 7 dólares por tonelada de CO2. Esto claramente no es válido para quienes sufren migrañas o ataques epilépticos por las nuevas bombillas, o para quienes están realmente preocupados por el mercurio, o para aquellos que tienen otras razones para preferir las bombillas incandescentes.</p>
<p>La solución debería ser concentrarse en mejorar la tecnología -haciendo que las luces sean más seguras, más brillantes, que calienten más rápido y que ahorren más energía, para que más gente reemplace más bombillas.</p>
<p>Pero no son sólo las bombillas lo que las autoridades intentaron prohibir. Los parlamentarios de la UE votaron abrumadoramente a favor de que se prohibieran los calentadores para exteriores, a los que un miembro del parlamento calificó como &#8220;un lujo que el planeta no puede permitirse&#8221;.</p>
<p>¿Quién decide cuándo algo es un lujo? ¿Y hasta dónde llega esto? ¿Deberíamos prohibir el aire acondicionado o las cajas satelitales de televisión porque para algunos son un lujo? ¿Tendríamos que prohibir los autos particulares en aquellos lugares donde hay transporte público para trasladarnos de A a B con menos emisiones de CO2?</p>
<p>Tiene sentido reflejar el costo del CO2 (entre muchos otros factores) en el precio que pagamos por conducir nuestros autos o calentar nuestras terrazas; pero cuando la erradicación avanza más lentamente de lo que algunos legisladores desean, una prohibición no es la solución apropiada.</p>
<p>Las reducciones reales de las emisiones de carbono recién se producirán cuando exista una tecnología mejor que justifique que individuos y empresas cambien su comportamiento. Las lámparas de bajo consumo y otros progresos nos pueden hacer avanzar algo, pero existen enormes obstáculos tecnológicos que superar antes de que los combustibles fósiles, en general, se vuelvan menos atractivos que las alternativas más verdes.</p>
<p>Aquí es donde muchos responsables de las políticas se equivocan. Los gobiernos hablan demasiado sobre establecer un impuesto a las emisiones de carbono relativamente alto, mientras que le prestan escasa atención a asegurar un incremento significativo en investigación y desarrollo para generar los avances necesarios.</p>
<p>Limitar el acceso a las bombillas &#8220;equivocadas&#8221; o a los calentadores para exteriores, en definitiva, no es el camino correcto. Sólo solucionaremos el calentamiento global si aseguramos que las tecnologías alternativas son mejores que nuestras opciones actuales. Entonces, la gente de todo el mundo elegirá usarlas.</p>
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		<title>Global warming is melting Al Gore’s brain</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36279/global-warming-is-melting-al-gore%e2%80%99s-brain/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36279/global-warming-is-melting-al-gore%e2%80%99s-brain/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 11 Aug 2011 21:59:29 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Leighton Steward</strong>, a geologist, environmentalist, author and retired energy industry executive. He currently heads the organization Plants Need CO2 (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 11/08/11):</p>
<p><a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Al Gore</a>, the world’s foremost pseudo- scientist, is blasting skeptical scientists for their adherence to the centuries-old scientific method. Having tested the man-made global warming hypothesis with empirical observations, many scientists have come to different conclusions, causing <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> to become the Lenny Bruce of the environmental extremist gang. Speaking at the Aspen Institute on Aug. 4, <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> blasted alternative climate-change theories, publicly labeling them “bulls-t” &#8211; his words, not mine.</p>
<p>Having already &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36279/global-warming-is-melting-al-gore%e2%80%99s-brain/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Leighton Steward</strong>, a geologist, environmentalist, author and retired energy industry executive. He currently heads the organization Plants Need CO2 (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 11/08/11):</p>
<p><a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Al Gore</a>, the world’s foremost pseudo- scientist, is blasting skeptical scientists for their adherence to the centuries-old scientific method. Having tested the man-made global warming hypothesis with empirical observations, many scientists have come to different conclusions, causing <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> to become the Lenny Bruce of the environmental extremist gang. Speaking at the Aspen Institute on Aug. 4, <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> blasted alternative climate-change theories, publicly labeling them “bulls-t” &#8211; his words, not mine.</p>
<p>Having already “invented the Internet,” <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> has moved on to more important things like inventing a new scientific method. <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>’s pseudo-scientific method must mean politically correct agendas always trump independent peer testing. If your scientific results contradict the politically correct consensus, you are a denier of a higher truth and your proof that his theories are false is bull (to use a more polite version).</p>
<p>Before <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>’s reliance on make-believe catastrophic climate model results, we were stuck with the good old scientific method, which says if the hypothesis cannot stand up to comparison with real, empirical observations, the hypothesis is false. <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/albert-einstein/">Albert Einstein</a> championed that test. <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> is abandoning it now because the test proves his “man-made CO2 is causing global climate change” hypothesis to be false.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> laments the fact that empirical observations are contradicting the “shared reality” he covets on his carefully chosen cocktail circuit. According to him, “It is no longer acceptable in mixed company &#8211; meaning bipartisan company &#8211; to use the goddamn word climate.” Pity.</p>
<p>For <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>, any notion that our world is one of constant change is bull. Well, <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>, with 18 or 20 natural climate drivers constantly at work, there is no way Earth can have a stable climate. There have been no flat lines on any temperature curve in the reconstructions of 500 million years of climate-CO2 relationships. How about the sun or major ocean currents that experience changing cycles? Well, is that just bull, too? Is anything that conflicts with the belief that man is the primary cause of climate change just more bull? My, what a dirty mouth our former veep has.</p>
<p>With all of <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>’s voiced confidence in his hypothesis, why won’t he debate the issue if he is certain that “the science is settled”? Here’s why: Fifteen of his major points in his 2006 film, “An Inconvenient Truth,” have been shown to be false, misleading or gross exaggerations. As long as many blindly follow him despite all of this, his best strategy is to remain off the debate circuit.</p>
<p>The problem with <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a>’s new pseudo-scientific dogma is, of course, what’s at stake. Lenny Bruce was a comedian. <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Mr. Gore</a> isn’t a comedian, as funny as he may appear. For some odd reason people still listen to him and he commands influence over national and global public policy. If he has his way, his man-made global warming agenda will melt our economy, our standard of living and even our national security.</p>
<p>Right now, the only thing global warming is melting is <a href="http://www.washingtontimes.com/topics/al-gore/">Al Gore</a>’s brain.</p>
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		<title>Un planeta para todos los simios</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36167/un-planeta-para-todos-los-simios/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 09 Aug 2011 19:13:35 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=36167</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Entre sus libros, figuran Animal Liberation (“Liberación animal”), Practical Ethics (“Ética práctica”), The Ethics of What We Eat (“El significado ético de lo que comemos”) y The Life You Can Save (“La vida que podéis salvar”). Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 09/08/11):</p>
<p>Dos nuevas películas estrenadas en este mes –una, un bombazo de ciencia ficción; la otra, un documental revelador– plantean la cuestión de nuestras relaciones con nuestros más cercanos parientes no humanos, los grandes simios. Las &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36167/un-planeta-para-todos-los-simios/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Entre sus libros, figuran Animal Liberation (“Liberación animal”), Practical Ethics (“Ética práctica”), The Ethics of What We Eat (“El significado ético de lo que comemos”) y The Life You Can Save (“La vida que podéis salvar”). Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 09/08/11):</p>
<p>Dos nuevas películas estrenadas en este mes –una, un bombazo de ciencia ficción; la otra, un documental revelador– plantean la cuestión de nuestras relaciones con nuestros más cercanos parientes no humanos, los grandes simios. Las dos dramatizan visiones y lecciones que no se deberían ignorar.</p>
<p><em>La rebelión del planeta de los simios</em> de Rupert Wyatt es la séptima película de una serie basada en la novela  de Pierre Boule de 1963 <em>El planeta de los simios</em>, sobre un mundo poblado por unos simios muy inteligentes. La publicidad de la nueva película afirma que es “la primera película de la historia del cine que no es de animación, cuyo protagonista es un animal sensible y que está contada desde el punto de vista de él”. Sin embargo, no se utilizaron simios vivos.</p>
<p>En su lugar, “la tecnología de captación facial”, originalmente inventada para la película <em>Avatar,</em> permite a un actor humano, Andy Serkis, desempeñar el papel del chimpancé Caesar, pero no vistiéndose con traje de tal, sino logrando transformar todo gesto y movimiento facial, incluso la contracción de una ceja, en el movimiento de un simio.</p>
<p>Cuando hablé con Wyatt el mes pasado, reconoció que había razones prácticas para no utilizar a simios reales en su película, pero también entendió la cuestión ética. “Había cosas que yo no quería hacer”, me dijo. “Para lograr que los simios hagan cualquier cosa que queramos, tenemos que dominarlos; tenemos que manipularlos para que actúen. Eso es una explotación”.</p>
<p>La renuencia de Wyatt a participar en la explotación de los grandes simios es comprensible, en vista de que la propia película cuenta la historia de unos simios que se rebelan contra la opresión de unos seres humanos dominantes. El personaje humano principal, Will Rodman (interpretado por James Franco), es un científico que, en busca de un tratamiento para la enfermedad de Alzheimer, hace experimentos con simios.</p>
<p>Muchas películas habrían ensalzado a un científico que intentara conseguir ese objetivo y habrían considerado evidentemente justificada la utilización de animales para ese fin. Sin embargo, <em>La rebelión del planeta de los simios </em>retrata a Rodman como, según dice Franco, “una persona fría y aislada”. Sólo cuando los superiores de Rodman suspenden sus experimentos y él se lleva a Caesar, una cría de chimpancé, a su casa, empieza el científico a preocuparse por los demás.  Entonces la trama da otro giro cuando Ceasar llega a ser demasiado grande y agresivo para vivir en un hogar humano y lo llevan a un supuesto refugio para primates, pero que es, en realidad, un vertedero para simios desechados y administrado por unos seres humanos que dan muestras de crueldad para con los animales cautivos.</p>
<p>Por lo que al tratamiento dado a los simios se refiere, gran parte de la película está firmemente basada en la realidad, como la contemplación de <em>El proyecto Nim</em>, documental basado en el libro de Elizabeth Hess <em>Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human,</em> demuestra claramente. Nim nació en 1973, en un centro de investigaciones sobre primates de Oklahoma y fue separado de su madre cuando sólo tenía diez días de edad para utilizarlo en un experimento sobre el lenguaje de signos.</p>
<p>Criado como parte de una familia humana, aprendió a utilizar más de 100 signos del Lenguaje Americano de Signos, el utilizado por los americanos sordos, pero fue separado de su primera familia humana y entregado a otros profesores con los que no tenía el mismo tipo de vinculación. Creció, se hizo más fuerte, se volvió más agresivo y empezó a morder a sus profesores.</p>
<p>Herbert Terrace, el psicólogo de la Universidad de Columbia que dirigía el proyecto, decidió ponerle fin y devolvió a Nim al centro de investigaciones sobre primates de Oklahoma. Allí, el mimado chimpancé, que, cuando se le pedía que diferenciara entre fotos de seres humanos y de simios, colocaba la suya entre las de los primeros, fue encerrado en una jaula con otros chimpancés. Demostró su visión de aquella situación al hacer el signo de “fuera” a los seres humanos que pasaban por delante. Nim sufrió otras diversas vicisitudes –y escapó por los pelos de ser infectado con hepatitis como parte de un experimento médico– hasta que al final fue liberado y llevado a un refugio para animales, donde murió en 2000.</p>
<p>En 1993, Paola Cavalieri y yo fundamos el Proyecto de los Grandes Simios, organización dedicada a reconocer que los grandes simios tienen una condición moral propia de su naturaleza como seres autoconscientes que pueden pensar y tienen vidas ricas y profundamente emocionales. Como mínimo, deben contar con el derecho a la vida, la libertad y la protección contra la tortura que concedemos a todos los miembros de nuestra especie, independientemente de sus capacidades intelectuales.</p>
<p>En todos estos años, esa idea ha logrado avances constantes. Desde 2010, la Unión Europa ha prohibido esencialmente la utilización de grandes simios en experimentos. Ahora los experimentos con grandes simios están prohibidos o severamente limitados en Nueva Zelanda, Australia y el Japón. En los Estados Unidos, un grupo bipartidista de miembros del Congreso apoya una legislación para poner fin a la utilización de los chimpancés en investigaciones que afectan a su organismo. En España, una resolución parlamentaria instó en 2008 al Gobierno a conceder derechos legales básicos a los grandes simios, pero el gobierno español aún no la ha aplicado.</p>
<p>Tal vez el estreno de esas dos películas tan diferentes propicie un gran impulso para situar a los grandes simios dentro del círculo de los seres con derechos morales y legales. De ese modo, nuestros parientes más próximos podrían servir para colmar el abismo moral que hemos creado entre nosotros y otros animales.</p>
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		<title>This summer of the shark, it’s all about saving them</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36086/this-summer-of-the-shark-it%e2%80%99s-all-about-saving-them/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 05 Aug 2011 21:51:44 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Juliet Eilperin</strong>, the national environmental reporter for The Washington Post and the author of <em>Demon Fish: Travels Through the Hidden World of Sharks</em> (THE WASHINGTON POST, 05/08/11):</p>
<p>Ten years ago, it seemed as if the nation was living a real-life version of<a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B0008KLVG4?ie=UTF8&#38;tag=washpost-opinions-20&#38;linkCode=xm2&#38;camp=1789&#38;creativeASIN=B0008KLVG4"> “Jaws,”</a> in which every beach harbored a potential threat. It started on July 6, when 8-year-old Jessie Arbogast had his arm bitten off by a bull shark off Pensacola, Fla. The incident was both horrifying and dramatic: Arbogast’s uncle pulled the shark to shore, allowing emergency medical personnel to get the boy’s arm out of the &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/36086/this-summer-of-the-shark-it%e2%80%99s-all-about-saving-them/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Juliet Eilperin</strong>, the national environmental reporter for The Washington Post and the author of <em>Demon Fish: Travels Through the Hidden World of Sharks</em> (THE WASHINGTON POST, 05/08/11):</p>
<p>Ten years ago, it seemed as if the nation was living a real-life version of<a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B0008KLVG4?ie=UTF8&amp;tag=washpost-opinions-20&amp;linkCode=xm2&amp;camp=1789&amp;creativeASIN=B0008KLVG4"> “Jaws,”</a> in which every beach harbored a potential threat. It started on July 6, when 8-year-old Jessie Arbogast had his arm bitten off by a bull shark off Pensacola, Fla. The incident was both horrifying and dramatic: Arbogast’s uncle pulled the shark to shore, allowing emergency medical personnel to get the boy’s arm out of the animal’s throat so it could later be reattached. Less than a month later, 36-year-old Krishna Thompson, a New Yorker, lost a leg to a shark in the Bahamas.</p>
<p>Labor Day weekend was particularly lethal. Ten-year-old David Peltier died on Sept. 2 when a shark claimed him off Virginia Beach. The next day, 28-year-old Sergei Zaloukaev was killed by a shark while swimming off Cape Hatteras, N.C.; his 23-year-old girlfriend, Natalia Slobodskaya, lost a foot in the same incident. As the human toll rose, the news media quickly dubbed 2001 the “Summer of the Shark.”</p>
<p>Television correspondents rushed to the scenes of the attacks, where they chronicled the most minute developments, announcing even the non-news that emergency responders doing routine sweeps of the ocean had failed to find any signs of sharks.</p>
<p>Pundits weighed in. As some emphasized that sharks pose a minimal threat to humans, Slate’s <a href="http://www.slate.com/id/114958/">Will Saletan questioned their analogies.</a></p>
<p>“Let’s get a few things straight. Gentle creatures don’t devour human limbs. The bogeyman doesn’t bleed children to death,” Saletan wrote on Sept. 7, 2001.</p>
<p>Less than a week later, we forgot all about sharks. The terrorist attacks on Sept. 11 took the lives of 2,753 people, a tragedy that dwarfed the impact of shark accidents not just that year, but in the half-century that preceded it. There were 76 unprovoked shark attacks globally in 2001, down from 85 the year before. Fatalities, meanwhile, dropped from 12 to five between 2000 and 2001.</p>
<p>Sharks still terrify people. Just consider <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/tv-column/post/snls-andy-samberg-this-years-shark-week-host/2011/04/20/AFWNXzCE_blog.html">the Discovery Channel’s “Shark Week,”</a> which wrapped up Friday: It is cable’s longest-running programming event and attracted 30.8 million viewers last year. And sharks remain the ocean’s top predators, with extraordinary senses that allow them to target weaker species. On occasion, they mistake humans for the animals they want to eat, with disastrous consequences.</p>
<p>But the era of hysteria could, mercifully, have finally sputtered out. In fact, we’ve entered a new kind of Year of the Shark.</p>
<p>The science is hard to ignore: Roughly a third of all shark species face some threat of extinction, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The growing demand for <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/distaste-widening-for-sharks-fin-soup/2011/05/18/AG3txgJH_story.html">shark’s fin soup</a>, a Chinese delicacy, kills between 26 and 73 million sharks a year. Vessels fishing for tuna, swordfish and other species accidentally catch millions more annually. Recreational anglers help deplete shark populations as well, taking 200,000 annually off U.S. coasts, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service.</p>
<p>The Summer of the Shark in ’01 didn’t send scientists scurrying to figure out why these animals strike people. But the past decade has witnessed a number of research breakthroughs about how sharks travel, mate and feed — research in the service of protecting them more than protecting us.</p>
<p>“The major driver of shark research during the past 10 years is growing evidence that many shark populations are in trouble,” said <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/22/AR2005082200036.html">Ellen K. Pikitch</a>, who has studied sharks for years and serves as executive director of the Institute for Ocean Conservation Science at Stony Brook University.</p>
<p>People fishing in developing countries have seen depleted shark populations as well. Scott Henderson, who heads Conservation International’s Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape program and has worked in Latin America for two decades, said fishermen there are well aware of what’s happening. “They know sharks are being caught in lower numbers, they know they have to go further out and spend more effort catching them. They know what that means.”</p>
<p>And now, political leaders are beginning to act. In 2009, Palau became the first country to ban shark fishing in its waters. Maldives followed in 2010, and this summer, Honduras and the Bahamas<a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/bahamas-bans-commercial-shark-fishing/2011/07/05/gHQALzs2yH_story.html">did the same</a>. Late last month, a group of governments in Micronesia — including Palau — agreed to create the world’s largest shark sanctuary in the western Pacific Ocean, spanning more than 2 million square miles. That’s equivalent to two-thirds of the land mass of the continental United States.</p>
<p>Closer to home, several states have moved to ban shark’s fin imports to help cut the demand for shark fishing worldwide. Hawaii was the first to do so, and now Washington and Oregon have enacted similar laws. A shark fin ban <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/california-assembly-bans-shark-fins/2011/05/23/AFFu429G_story.html">passed the California state Assembly </a>in May and could come up for a vote in the state Senate this month. The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission is considering banning the catch of tiger sharks and three species of hammerhead sharks, and it will vote on the issue next month. Neil Hammerschlag, who directs the marine conservation program at the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, noted that these restrictions can make a significant difference. He said recent studies show that when it comes to recreational shark fishing, killing just a few large sharks in a local area can drastically reduce population levels.</p>
<p>Matt Rand, who directs the Global Shark Conservation program at the Pew Environment Group, said that conservation activity overseas as well as in the United States indicates that for sharks, “their time has come.” Pikitch said concern for sharks has “reached a tipping point,” which means, “in essence, 2011 is a very different Year of the Shark.”</p>
<p>Interestingly, this new tolerance comes even as human-shark interactions may be on the rise. Last month a great white leapt onto a research vessel in South Africa, and reported shark strikes in U.S. waters are slightly up this summer, with seven each in May and June, and three in July.</p>
<p>Are we ready to embrace sharks? Not yet. The Discovery Channel is still dangling the promise of “a new brand of rogue,” even as it debunks the myth that sharks intentionally target humans.</p>
<p>But people can now put these threats into perspective. Sharks have killed an average of four to five people annually worldwide over the past decade. But this summer’s heat wave has already killed more than 30 people across the United States. Now that’s scary.</p>
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		<title>The politics of earthquakes</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35775/the-politics-of-earthquakes/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35775/the-politics-of-earthquakes/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 24 Jul 2011 07:44:19 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Vivienda y urbanismo]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Claire Berlinski</strong>, a <em>City Journal</em> contributing editor an American journalist who lives in Istanbul. This piece is adapted from the summer issue of <em>City Journal</em> (LOS ANGELES TIMES, 24/07/11):</p>
<p>Seismic risk mitigation is the greatest urban policy challenge the world confronts today. If you consider that too strong a claim, try to imagine another way in which bad urban policy could kill a million people in 30 seconds. Yet the politics of earthquakes are rarely discussed and, when discussed, widely misunderstood.</p>
<p>Take Japan&#8217;s Sendai earthquake on March 11, which released 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35775/the-politics-of-earthquakes/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Claire Berlinski</strong>, a <em>City Journal</em> contributing editor an American journalist who lives in Istanbul. This piece is adapted from the summer issue of <em>City Journal</em> (LOS ANGELES TIMES, 24/07/11):</p>
<p>Seismic risk mitigation is the greatest urban policy challenge the world confronts today. If you consider that too strong a claim, try to imagine another way in which bad urban policy could kill a million people in 30 seconds. Yet the politics of earthquakes are rarely discussed and, when discussed, widely misunderstood.</p>
<p>Take Japan&#8217;s Sendai earthquake on March 11, which released 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima bomb. The ensuing partial meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant prompted international hysteria about nuclear power, but few seemed to realize that a far deadlier threat had been averted. As seismologist Roger Bilham aptly put it, houses in seismically active zones are the world&#8217;s unrecognized weapons of mass destruction — and Japan&#8217;s WMD didn&#8217;t go off. Its buildings — at least those that weren&#8217;t swept away by the accompanying tsunami, a force of nature against which we are still largely helpless — remained standing, and the people inside survived.</p>
<p>That so few buildings collapsed in the earthquake was a human triumph of the first order. But cities around the world seem happy to ignore the earthquake threat — one that is only growing as the cities themselves get bigger and bigger.</p>
<p>The Japan quake was not the catastrophe it could have been because the country learned from experience. In the wake of the 1995 Kobe quake, in which 200,000 buildings collapsed, Japanese engineers took extensive measures to reinforce buildings and infrastructure. They installed rubber blocks under bridges. They spaced buildings farther apart to prevent domino-style tumbling. They introduced extra bracing, base isolation pads, hydraulic shock absorbers. A minute before the March earthquake, seismic monitoring systems sent warnings to Japanese cellphones. Elevators glided obediently to the nearest floor and opened. Surgeries were halted. Videos from Tokyo show skyscrapers swaying gracefully, like cornstalks in the wind. Not one collapsed.</p>
<p><strong>Cities at risk</strong></p>
<p>But many of the world&#8217;s biggest cities are at massive seismic risk, built more like Port-au-Prince, Haiti, which was devastated by an earthquake in 2010, than like Kobe. Eight of the world&#8217;s 10 biggest cities are built on fault lines, and they are growing larger every day. The urbanization trend is continuing upward, as is the trend of housing migrant populations in death traps. As a result, it&#8217;s likely that before long we&#8217;ll see a headline announcing, &#8220;1 Millon Dead in Massive Earthquake.&#8221;</p>
<p>Yet, just as we know how to build airplanes that don&#8217;t crash, we know how to construct buildings that don&#8217;t collapse. We also know which cities are most at risk: Bogota, Cairo, Caracas, Dhaka, Islamabad, Istanbul, Jakarta, Karachi, Katmandu, Lima, Manila, Mexico City, New Delhi, Quito and Tehran. Los Angeles and Tokyo are prime candidates for a major quake, but they will probably survive because they are well-built — though Los Angeles could do better.</p>
<p>It&#8217;s tempting to think that people in certain countries are cavalier about the risk because they&#8217;re poor. The argument goes like this: Safe houses cost more to build than cheap ones. Cement watered down with sand stretches further. People in poor cities don&#8217;t have the money to build safe houses, or if they do, they have decided to use it to mitigate more immediate risks such as hunger.</p>
<p>If wealth was all there was to it, the solution would be, if not simple, at least obvious: To prepare for an earthquake, promote economic development and cross your fingers. When a country becomes wealthy enough, the problem will solve itself.</p>
<p>This theory has been voiced in Istanbul, where I live. Mustafa</p>
<p>Erdik, chairman of the Department of Earthquake Engineering at Bogazici University, has suggested that Turkey&#8217;s best hope is rapid economic growth. If growth happens fast enough, he says, property owners will be able to replace the worst housing stock before the ground starts shaking. If we look at it this way, we see seismic risk reduction as a paradox: The best way to reduce the risk is to ignore it.</p>
<p>The idea is tempting and elegant. But it&#8217;s wrong.</p>
<p><strong>Money isn&#8217;t everything</strong></p>
<p>Wealth in and of itself is not enough to get people to take earthquakes seriously. Here is the evidence. On Feb. 27, 2010, a magnitude 8.8 earthquake struck near the city of Concepcion, Chile. Though the epicenter was not at the heart of the city, this quake was 100 times bigger than the one that leveled Port-au-Prince. It was so massive that it shortened the length of the day by 1.26 microseconds and moved the Earth on its axis by eight centimeters. When it was over, the entire city of Concepcion had been moved three yards to the west.</p>
<p>The death toll from this monster was 521. Each death was its own disaster, of course, but the number was nevertheless astoundingly small for an earthquake that, by all rights, should have destroyed Chile as a whole. Chile did so well because it has some of the strictest and most advanced building codes in the world, and because the codes do not merely exist on paper — they are enforced.</p>
<p>Now consider Turkey. Like Chile, Turkey is no stranger to earthquakes. In 1509, an earthquake killed between 5% and 10% of Constantinople&#8217;s population. The Ottomans called it Kiyamet-i Sugra, the Minor Judgment Day. Since then, the city has suffered serious quake damage 11 times, most recently at the end of the 19th century.</p>
<p>There is not a geologist alive who doubts that a major earthquake is likely to hit Istanbul soon. In 2000, the U.S. Geological Survey put the odds of it happening within 30 years at 62%. Erdik has estimated that it will kill 200,000 to 300,000 people. The cost of the cleanup — $50 billion would be an optimistic estimate — will surely set Turkey&#8217;s economy back decades. It will be a political cataclysm, with massive ramifications for the entire region.</p>
<p>Every day I walk past buildings in Istanbul that are clearly unsound. I see ground floors, for example, with walls or columns removed to make way for store displays, violating one of the most important principles of earthquake-resistant construction. There are vast neighborhoods filled with illegal, flimsy structures called gecekondu, &#8220;landed overnight.&#8221; Gecekondu aren&#8217;t built by engineers. They tend to be built on bad soil. They are packed with children.</p>
<p>Even buildings approved by engineers, warned a recent study by the Turkish Chamber of Civil Engineers, are largely not built to code. The group also warned that 86% of the city&#8217;s hospitals were at high risk of collapse.</p>
<p>Is this because Turkey is poor? The per-capita gross domestic product in Chile this year is $15,867. In Turkey, it is $14,077. That&#8217;s not a huge difference.</p>
<p>The point becomes even clearer if we consider &#8220;nonstructural seismic risk mitigation&#8221; — the little things, besides building better houses, that people can do to protect themselves.</p>
<p>These steps aren&#8217;t expensive. For example, according to studies done by the Istanbul Seismic Risk Mitigation and Preparedness Project, a quake of the size widely predicted would rupture 30,000 natural gas lines. In the aftermath of a stressful event, people do a predictable thing: They smoke. Smoking near a ruptured gas line is a good way to start a fire. But I don&#8217;t think I&#8217;ve ever seen a sign or TV commercial anywhere in Istanbul saying, &#8220;If it happens, don&#8217;t light up.&#8221;</p>
<p>Nor have I seen more than a handful of commercials or public service announcements reminding people what else they should do in an earthquake: duck, cover and hold on. Last year, I stayed in a hotel in Palo Alto. The first thing I noticed in my room was a card on the desk, labeled &#8220;Earthquake Safety Tips for Visitors,&#8221; with instructions in Spanish and English as well as diagrams. I&#8217;ve never once seen anything like this in a Turkish hotel room.</p>
<p>Although it is very expensive to tear down and replace, or reinforce, inadequate housing, it isn&#8217;t expensive at all to bolt heavy goods to the walls or to move heavy furniture away from beds. Rarely is this done in Istanbul. The odd thing, though, is that everyone does fear the coming quake. Last year, a minor jolt panicked the city and sent the Turkish word for earthquake, deprem, to the top of Twitter&#8217;s trending topics. But almost no one knows what to do if it happens, or cares to know. I know many people in Istanbul who are wealthy enough to live in safer buildings but don&#8217;t. They are fully aware of the risk; they&#8217;re just fatalistic.</p>
<p>Contrast Turkey with Japan. After the March quake, journalist Kirk Spitzer, who lives in Japan, wrote about the culture of earthquake preparedness there: &#8220;Our shelves are lined with rubberized material to keep glasses and plate-ware from sliding; nothing fell over and broke, not even delicate champagne glasses we brought from Paris. Elsewhere, floor-mounted latches kept bedroom and hallway doors from slamming or breaking loose. Picture rails built into the ceiling kept even heavy frames from crashing to the floor.&#8221;</p>
<p>Ordinary, middle-class Japanese take these steps to protect their drinking glasses. Many museums in Istanbul fail to take similar steps to protect priceless sculptures, ceramics and cuneiform. This isn&#8217;t a matter of comparative wealth; it&#8217;s a matter of culture.</p>
<p>You see a similar failure to turn worry into action at the governmental level. Local officials in the municipality of Besiktas have elaborate earthquake plans. But though they have existed since 2008 in a PowerPoint presentation, no progress has been made toward implementation.</p>
<p>Fatalism kills. Short-term thinking kills. But above all, corruption kills. On the anniversary of the Haiti earthquake, Nicholas Ambraseys and Roger Bilham published an extraordinary study in Nature magazine. Using data from Transparency International&#8217;s Corruption Perception Index, they calculated that 83% of all deaths from building collapses in earthquakes in the last 30 years took place in countries that were &#8220;anomalously corrupt&#8221; — that is, in countries that were perceived to be more corrupt than you would predict from their per-capita income.</p>
<p>Economist Charles Kenny&#8217;s definitive 2007 study argues persuasively that the construction industry is the most corrupt sector of the world economy. And the more corruption there is in construction — whether it consists of companies using substandard materials or of governments granting permission to build in zones unsuitable for habitation — the likelier you are to die.</p>
<p>The absence of outright corruption isn&#8217;t enough to keep countries safe; it is also essential to have in place a particular kind of legal regime. Strong tort law is the key, and Chile is a model here as well. During the recent earthquake, a new building in Concepcion collapsed. Its surviving inhabitants took the builders to court, charging fraud and, in some cases, murder. Chilean law holds the original owner of a building liable for any earthquake damage suffered during its first decade, even if ownership has changed during that time. Because of this law, owners often exceed the provisions of Chile&#8217;s already strict building codes in their eagerness to avoid liability.</p>
<p><strong>Terror in Port-au-Prince </strong></p>
<p>When the Haiti earthquake struck last year, I had a personal reason to be alarmed: My brother and his family lived in Port-au-Prince. They survived, but many of my sister-in-law&#8217;s co-workers were crushed to death. From Washington, I translated text messages sent to an emergency number set up to help search-and-rescue teams locate victims. The messages were awful: &#8220;Jean-Olivier Neptune is caught under rubbles of his fallen house&#8230;. He is alive but in very bad shape.&#8221; &#8220;Hotel Montana at Rue Franck Cardozo in Petionville collapsed. 200 feared trapped.&#8221; &#8220;My mother is part of a medical team that had just arrived in Port-au-Prince. We received a text that she and two others are trapped beneath the rubble.&#8221;</p>
<p>Estimates vary widely, but it seems likely that more than 150,000 people were killed in Haiti, and God knows how many more were maimed, physically and emotionally, by collapsing buildings.</p>
<p>This will happen again and again, in larger and larger numbers, with ever-weepier celebrity telethons to accompany the carnage. But you&#8217;ll see no calls to save the world from corrupt building practices on your bags at Whole Foods. Nobody will suggest that the U.S. government enter into seismic risk reduction treaties with other nations.</p>
<p>Spin the wheel: Bogota, Cairo, Caracas, Dhaka, Islamabad, Istanbul, Jakarta, Karachi, Katmandu, Lima, Manila, Mexico City, New Delhi, Quito, Tehran. It will be one of them. It isn&#8217;t too late to save them. But we need to discuss truthfully why they&#8217;re at risk in the first place.</p>
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		<title>The world&#8217;s biggest problem? Too many people</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35741/the-worlds-biggest-problem-too-many-people/</link>
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		<pubDate>Thu, 21 Jul 2011 20:27:03 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Demografía]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mary Ellen Harte</strong>, coauthor of <em>Cool the Earth, Save the Economy</em> and <strong>Anne Ehrlich</strong>, a senior research scientist at Stanford University. <strong>John Harte</strong> and <strong>Paul Ehrlich</strong> contributed to this piece. All are biologists involved in the study of climate change and sustainability (LOS ANGELES TIMES, 21/07/11):</p>
<p>Think back on what you talked about with friends and family at your last gathering. The latest game of your favorite team? &#8220;American Idol&#8221;? An addictive hobby? The new movie blockbuster? In a serious moment, maybe job prospects, Afghanistan, the economic mess? We live in an information-drenched environment, one in which &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35741/the-worlds-biggest-problem-too-many-people/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mary Ellen Harte</strong>, coauthor of <em>Cool the Earth, Save the Economy</em> and <strong>Anne Ehrlich</strong>, a senior research scientist at Stanford University. <strong>John Harte</strong> and <strong>Paul Ehrlich</strong> contributed to this piece. All are biologists involved in the study of climate change and sustainability (LOS ANGELES TIMES, 21/07/11):</p>
<p>Think back on what you talked about with friends and family at your last gathering. The latest game of your favorite team? &#8220;American Idol&#8221;? An addictive hobby? The new movie blockbuster? In a serious moment, maybe job prospects, Afghanistan, the economic mess? We live in an information-drenched environment, one in which sports and favorite programs are just a click away. And the ease with which we can do this allows us to focus on mostly comforting subjects that divert our attention from increasingly real, long-term problems.</p>
<p>Notice that we didn&#8217;t mention climate change above, or the exploding population/consumption levels that are triggering it — the two major factors threatening humanity&#8217;s future. Sure, if you&#8217;re not too far from the Western wildfires or Midwestern floodplains, the conversation might have turned to the crazy weather that is finally forcing some media to actually talk about climate change in the context of daily events.</p>
<p>But population? Get out. Way too inconvenient a truth. Take National Public Radio, for example. Of NPR&#8217;s sparse record of population pieces, just one or two actually address unsustainable population growth. But as the political right whittles away at family planning clinics across the nation, the latest NPR series, &#8220;The Baby Project,&#8221; devotes a plethora of articles to pregnancy, with the most serious subjects the problems some women have conceiving and birthing. If there is even a hint of too many babies, it is well hidden. This, even though a 2009 NPR story on U.S. pregnancies reported that half — yes, half — of all U.S. pregnancies are unintended. That&#8217;s a lot of unintended consumers adding to our future climate change.</p>
<p>And that&#8217;s what the right calls the &#8220;liberal&#8221; side of the mass media. The politically conservative U.S. mass media cover unsustainable population levels even less.</p>
<p>That pretty much reflects the appalling state of U.S. public education today on population. The U.S. approach to population issues across all levels of government, in terms of such things as education, attacks on family planning and tax deductions for children, is an exercise in thoughtlessness. The ramifications, however, are far more insidious and brutal. Women are culturally conditioned daily to welcome the idea of having children — plural, not one or none. How to support those children economically is not discussed. Indeed, our abysmal lack of adolescent sex educational programs ensures there will be plenty of young women who secure their destinies, and those of their babies, to brutal poverty and shortened lives through unwanted pregnancies and lack of choice. The latest available statistics from the National Poverty Center at the University of Michigan tell the story: 1 in 5 American children lived in poverty in 2008; 1 in 3 if they were black or Latino.</p>
<p>Sure, there&#8217;s much talk and concern that birthrates are down and will result in not enough workers to support the elderly. But this argument is overblown; after all, a 70-year-old can be more economically productive than a 7-year-old. And a large, pre-working population inflicts costs on a society. Furthermore, the birthrates in developing nations remain high, and the consequences affect us all.</p>
<p>Globally, the effects of overpopulation play a part in practically every daily report of mass human calamity, but the word &#8220;population&#8221; is rarely mentioned. Wildfires threaten ever more people because expanding populations are moving nearer and into forests. Floods inundate more homes as populations expand into floodplains. Such extreme events are stoked by climate change, fueled by increasing carbon emissions from an expanding global population.</p>
<p>Overpopulation is also fueling desertification and further deforestation around the world. We can dream of drastically decreasing overconsumption by the wealthy, but even realistic potential decreases are voided by sheer human numbers in all countries, rich and poor. Our unsustainable population levels are depleting resources and denying a decent future to our descendants.</p>
<p>What to do? Stop the denial. Perpetual growth is the creed of a cancer cell, not a sustainable human society.</p>
<p>Promote and support family planning education at the family and community levels as a cheap way to reduce poverty and severe climate change. Support organizations that are trying to get contraceptives to the 200 million women in the world who lack and want them, and help them obtain equal rights, education and job opportunities. Access to contraceptives and reproductive freedom are rights, not luxuries, that ultimately benefit all of humanity. Vote for leaders who vigorously promote those humane solutions. And demand that media start educating the public every day on the role played by the unsustainable human numbers behind environmental degradation and human calamities — and start covering the solutions. The public needs a constant message: &#8220;It&#8217;s time to stop growing and become sustainable.&#8221;</p>
<p>We can do many things to solve environmental, economic and social problems, but each is a lost cause if we cannot bring our populations down to sustainable levels.</p>
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		<title>Sizzle Factor for a Restless Climate</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35720/sizzle-factor-for-a-restless-climate/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35720/sizzle-factor-for-a-restless-climate/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 20 Jul 2011 18:49:33 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=35720</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Heidi Cullen</strong>, a scientist at Climate Central, a journalism and research organization and the author of <em>The Weather of the Future: Heat Waves, Extreme Storms, and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 20/07/11):</p>
<p>Enjoying the heat wave?</p>
<p>The answer is probably no if you live in Abilene, Tex., where temperatures have been at or above 100 degrees for 40 days this summer. It’s been a little cooler in Savannah, Ga., where the mercury hit 90 or more for 56 days in a row. Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma are coping with their driest nine-month &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35720/sizzle-factor-for-a-restless-climate/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Heidi Cullen</strong>, a scientist at Climate Central, a journalism and research organization and the author of <em>The Weather of the Future: Heat Waves, Extreme Storms, and Other Scenes From a Climate-Changed Planet</em> (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 20/07/11):</p>
<p>Enjoying the heat wave?</p>
<p>The answer is probably no if you live in Abilene, Tex., where temperatures have been at or above 100 degrees for 40 days this summer. It’s been a little cooler in Savannah, Ga., where the mercury hit 90 or more for 56 days in a row. Texas, New Mexico and Oklahoma are coping with their driest nine-month stretch since 1895.</p>
<p>Yes, it has been a very hot summer after one of the most extreme-weather springs on record. It’s time to face the fact that the weather isn’t what it used to be.</p>
<p>Every 10 years, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration recalculates what it calls climate “normals,” 30-year averages of temperature and precipitation for about 7,500 locations across the United States. The latest numbers, released earlier this month, show that the climate of the last 10 years was about 1.5 degrees warmer than the climate of the 1970s, and the warmest since the first decade of the last century. Temperatures were, on average, 0.5 degrees warmer from 1981 to 2010 than they were from 1971 to 2000, and the average annual temperatures for all of the lower 48 states have gone up.</p>
<p>For climate geeks like me, the new normals offer a fascinating and disturbing snapshot of a restless climate. The numbers don’t take sides or point fingers. They acknowledge both powerful natural climate fluctuations as well as the steady drumbeat of warming caused by roughly seven billion people trying to live and prosper on a small planet, emitting heat-trapping greenhouse gases in the process.</p>
<p>Even this seemingly modest shift in climate can mean a big change in weather. Shifting weather patterns influence energy demand, affect crop productivity and lead to weather-related disasters. In the United States, in any given year, routine weather events like a hot day or a heavy downpour can cost the economy as much as $485 billion in crop losses, construction delays and travel disruptions, a recent study by the National Center for Atmospheric Research found. In other words, that extra 1.5 degrees might be more than we can afford.</p>
<p>And while the new normals don’t point to a cause, climate science does. Drawing from methods used in epidemiology, a field of climate research called “detection and attribution” tests how human actions like burning fossil fuels affect climate and increase the odds of extreme weather events.</p>
<p>Heat-trapping pollution at least doubled the likelihood of the infamous European heat wave that killed more than 30,000 people during the summer of 2003, according to a study in the journal Nature in 2004. And if we don’t ease our grip on the climate, summers like that one will likely happen every other year by 2040, the study warned. Human actions have warmed the climate on all seven continents, and as a result all weather is now occurring in an environment that bears humanity’s signature, with warmer air and seas and more moisture than there was just a few decades ago, resulting in more extreme weather.</p>
<p>The snapshots of climate history from NOAA can also provide a glimpse of what’s in store locally in the future. Using climate models, we can project what future Julys might look like. For example, by 2050, assuming we continue to pump heat-trapping pollution into our atmosphere at a rate similar to today’s, New Yorkers can expect the number of July days exceeding 90 degrees to double, and those exceeding 95 degrees to roughly triple. Sweltering days in excess of 100 degrees, rare now, will become a regular feature of the Big Apple’s climate in the 2050s.</p>
<p>The next time NOAA calculates its new temperature normals will be in 2021 — when there will be about another billion people on the planet. Lady Gaga may no longer be hot. But the climate almost surely will be.</p>
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		<title>Contrabandistas y bautistas verdes</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35668/contrabandistas-y-bautistas-verdes/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35668/contrabandistas-y-bautistas-verdes/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 15 Jul 2011 19:18:26 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=35668</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist (“El ecologista escéptico”) y Cool It (“No os acaloréis”), director del Centro de Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto en la Escuela de Administración de Empresas de Copenhague. Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano<strong> (</strong>Project Syndicate, 15/07/11):</p>
<p>En mayo, el Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático (IPCC) de las Naciones Unidas dio que hablar en los medios de comunicación con un nuevo informe sobre la energía renovable. Como en el pasado, el IPCC publicó primero un breve resumen y sólo más tarde revelaría todos los datos. Así, pues, &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35668/contrabandistas-y-bautistas-verdes/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Bjørn Lomborg</strong>, autor de The Skeptical Environmentalist (“El ecologista escéptico”) y Cool It (“No os acaloréis”), director del Centro de Consenso de Copenhague y profesor adjunto en la Escuela de Administración de Empresas de Copenhague. Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano<strong> (</strong>Project Syndicate, 15/07/11):</p>
<p>En mayo, el Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Climático (IPCC) de las Naciones Unidas dio que hablar en los medios de comunicación con un nuevo informe sobre la energía renovable. Como en el pasado, el IPCC publicó primero un breve resumen y sólo más tarde revelaría todos los datos. Así, pues, correspondió a los expertos del IPCC en presentar su sesgado mensaje a los periodistas para que lo transmitieran.</p>
<p>En la primera línea del comunicado de prensa del IPCC se declaraba que “a mediados de siglo casi el 80 por ciento del suministro energético del mundo podría correr a cargo de las energías renovables, si estuvieran respaldadas por unas políticas públicas adecuadas”. Las organizaciones de medios de comunicación repitieron esa historia a escala mundial.</p>
<p>El mes pasado, el IPCC hizo público el informe completo, junto con los datos en los que se basaba esa afirmación asombrosamente optimista. Sólo entonces se supo que se basaba exclusivamente en la más optimista de las 164 hipótesis resultantes de los modelos y estudiadas por los investigadores y esa única hipótesis procedía de un único estudio que se remontaba a un informe preparado por la organización ecologista Greenpeace. Su autor, un miembro del personal de Greenpeace, era uno de los autores principales del IPCC.</p>
<p>La afirmación se basaba en el supuesto de una gran reducción de la utilización mundial de la energía. Dado el número de personas que están saliendo de la pobreza en China y la India, se trata de una hipótesis poco convincente.</p>
<p>Cuando el IPCC hizo esa afirmación por primera vez, los activistas del calentamiento planetario y las empresas de energías renovables lanzaron vítores. “El informe demuestra claramente que las tecnologías renovables podrían suministrar al mundo más energía de la que jamás necesitaría”, se jactó Steve Sawyer, Secretario General del Consejo Mundial de la Energía Eólica.</p>
<p>Esa clase de comportamiento –en el que los activistas y las grandes empresas se unen para aplaudir algo que indica la necesidad de aumentar las subvenciones a la energía substitutiva– quedó expuesto en la célebre teoría denominada de “los contrabandistas y los bautistas&#8221; de la política.</p>
<p>Dicha teoría se debió a la experiencia de los Estados Unidos sureños, donde muchas jurisdicciones obligaban a las tiendas a cerrar los domingos, con lo que impedían la venta de alcohol. Esa reglamentación contaba con el apoyo de grupos religiosos por razones morales, pero también de contrabandistas, porque los domingos tenían el marcado para ellos solos. Los políticos adoptaban la retórica pía de los bautistas, mientras recibían a escondidas contribuciones de los delincuentes a sus campañas.</p>
<p>Naturalmente, los “contrabandistas” del cambio climático actuales no cometen ilegalidad alguna, pero con frecuencia se pasa por alto el interés de las empresas energéticas, los productores de biocombustibles, las compañías de seguros, los grupos de presión y otros en apoyo de las políticas “verdes”.</p>
<p>De hecho, la teoría de “los contrabandistas y los bautistas” sirve para explicar otras derivaciones de la política relativa al calentamiento planetario en el último decenio, más o menos. Por ejemplo, el Protocolo de Kyoto habría costado billones de dólares, pero habría logrado resultados prácticamente inapreciables a la hora de detener el aumento de la temperatura mundial. Y, sin embargo, los activistas afirmaban que existía la obligación moral de reducir las emisiones de dióxido de carbono y fueron aclamados por las empresas que se beneficiarían con ello.</p>
<p>Durante la infausta cumbre del clima celebrada en Copenhague en diciembre de 2009, la capital de Dinamarca quedó cubierta con carteles ingeniosos en los que se instaba a los delegados a lograr un acuerdo válido&#8230; pagados por Vestas, el mayor productor de molinos de viento del mundo.</p>
<p>El magnate del petróleo T. Boone Pickens, famoso converso al ecologismo, formuló un “plan” (que bautizó con su propio nombre) para aumentar la dependencia de los Estados Unidos de las renovables. Naturalmente, habría sido también uno de los mayores inversores en las empresas de energía eólica y de gas natural beneficiarias de las subvenciones estatales.</p>
<p>Los gigantes energéticos tradicionales BP y Shell han abanderado sus credenciales “verdes”, pero, además, eran posibles beneficiarios de la venta de petróleo o gas en lugar del carbón medioambientalmente “nocivo”. Incluso el gigante de la electricidad de los EE.UU. Duke Energy, gran consumidor de carbón, obtuvo renombre verde por promover un plan de límites máximos y comercio para los EE.UU., pero la empresa acabó oponiéndose al proyecto legislativo para la creación de dicho plan, porque no concedía suficientes permisos de emisiones de carbono gratuitas a las empresas del carbón.</p>
<p>Afirmaciones equívocas por parte de activistas fieles dieron pie para la aparición de la industria de los biocombustibles (con el apoyo de grupos de presión). Es probable que la producción de biocombustibles <em>aumente</em> el carbono atmosférico por la desforestación en gran escala que requiere, mientras que la desviación de  cosechas aumenta los precios de los alimentos y contribuye al hambre mundial. Si bien los ecologistas han empezado a reconocerlo, la industria recibió mucho apoyo de ellos en sus comienzos y ahora ni las agroindustrias ni los productores de energías verdes tienen interés alguno en cambiar de rumbo.</p>
<p>Evidentemente, la motivación de las empresas privadas es el propio interés, cosa que no es mala en sí, pero con demasiada frecuencia vemos a comentaristas indicar que, cuando Greenpeace y grandes empresas están de acuerdo en algo, debe de ser una opción sensata. El apoyo de empresas a políticas caras, como, por ejemplo, el protocolo de Kyoto, que habría servido de muy poco para luchar contra el cambio climático, indica lo contrario.</p>
<p>Los “bautistas” del cambio climático brindan la cobertura moral que los políticos pueden utilizar para vender una reglamentación, junto con historias aterradoras que los medios de comunicación pueden utilizar para atraer a lectores y espectadores. Las empresas ven las oportunidades de obtener subvenciones con cargo al contribuyente y de hacer recaer sobre los consumidores el inevitable aumento de los costos.</p>
<p>Lamentablemente, esa convergencia de intereses puede hacer que nos centremos en reacciones ineficaces y onerosas ante el cambio climático. Siempre que fuerzas políticas opuestas se atraen, como lo han hecho los activistas y las grandes empresas en el caso del calentamiento planetario, existe un gran riesgo de que el interés público quede atrapado en el medio.</p>
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		<title>Progreso moral y bienestar animal</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35613/progreso-moral-y-bienestar-animal/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35613/progreso-moral-y-bienestar-animal/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 13 Jul 2011 19:52:54 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Ecología]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=35613</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Ha escrito, entre otros, <em>Animal Liberation</em> (Liberación animal), <em>Practical Ethics</em> (Ética práctica), <em>The Ethics of What We Eat</em> (Ética de lo que comemos) y <em>The Life You Can Save</em> (La vida que usted puede salvar) (Project Syndicate, 13/07/11):</p>
<p>Mahatma Gandhi observó certeramente que &#8220;la grandeza y el progreso moral de una nación pueden ser juzgados por la forma en que trata a sus animales&#8221;. Intentar reducir el sufrimiento de aquellos que se encuentran completamente bajo nuestro dominio, sin poder defenderse, &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35613/progreso-moral-y-bienestar-animal/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton y profesor laureado en la Universidad de Melbourne. Ha escrito, entre otros, <em>Animal Liberation</em> (Liberación animal), <em>Practical Ethics</em> (Ética práctica), <em>The Ethics of What We Eat</em> (Ética de lo que comemos) y <em>The Life You Can Save</em> (La vida que usted puede salvar) (Project Syndicate, 13/07/11):</p>
<p>Mahatma Gandhi observó certeramente que &#8220;la grandeza y el progreso moral de una nación pueden ser juzgados por la forma en que trata a sus animales&#8221;. Intentar reducir el sufrimiento de aquellos que se encuentran completamente bajo nuestro dominio, sin poder defenderse, es verdaderamente un signo de una sociedad civilizada.</p>
<p>En consecuencia, si se observa el avance de las leyes tendientes al bienestar animal en todo el mundo se puede tener una medida del progreso moral en general. El mes pasado ocurrieron acontecimientos paralelos en lugares opuestos del planeta que dieron motivos para pensar que el mundo, lentamente y con dificultad, se está volviendo un poco más civilizado.</p>
<p>En primer lugar, la Cámara de los Comunes británica aprobó una moción dirigida al Gobierno para imponer una prohibición del uso de animales salvajes en circos. Fue presentada tras la publicación de una filmación oculta, obtenida por Animal Defenders International, de un trabajador de circo que golpea repetidas veces a Ana, una elefante. Al menos al principio, la medida fue resistida por gobierno conservador, pero recibió el apoyo de miembros de todos los partidos políticos. En un triunfo para la democracia parlamentaria, fue aprobada sin oposición.</p>
<p>De manera más polémica, la cámara baja del parlamento holandés aprobó una ley que da a las comunidades judía e islámica un año para demostrar que los animales sacrificados mediante los métodos tradicionales no experimentan más dolor que los que son aturdidos antes de su muerte. Si no se presenta dicha evidencia, en los Países Bajos se requerirá aturdir a los animales antes de su faena.</p>
<p>A veces ha parecido que los avances para los animales en los países occidentales tienen como contrapeso un aumento del nivel de maltrato en China, a medida que la creciente prosperidad en ese país eleva la demanda de productos de origen animal. El vídeo de la paliza a Ana me resultó difícil de ver, pero no se puede comparar con los que he visto documentando la crueldad hacia los animales en China.</p>
<p>Las repugnantes imágenes disponibles en línea muestran osos encerrados en jaulas tan pequeñas que no pueden ponerse de pie o, en algunos casos, moverse en absoluto, para que así se les pueda extraer su bilis. Peor aún (si se pueden comparar tales atrocidades) es un vídeo que muestra cómo se desuella vivos a animales que tienen el infortunio de poseer pieles de valor comercial, tras lo cual son arrojados a un montón sanguinolento donde se los deja morir lentamente.</p>
<p>A la luz -tal vez habría que decir la oscuridad- de tales imágenes, a veces se sugiere que el bienestar animal es una preocupación exclusivamente occidental. Pero eso es inverosímil, dado que la tradición budista pone más énfasis en la preocupación por los animales que el judaísmo, el cristianismo o el Islam. Mucho antes de que los filósofos occidentales incluyeran a los animales en su ética, filósofos chinos como Zhuangzi manifestaron que el amor debe estar presente no sólo en las relaciones entre los seres humanos, sino entre todos los seres sintientes. En la actualidad, China tiene su propios activistas por los derechos de los animales y hay indicios de que su mensaje se está comenzando a escuchar.</p>
<p>Una señal reciente también tiene relación con los circos. Los zoológicos chinos han atraído multitudes mediante la organización de espectáculos de animales, permitiendo al público comprar pollos, cabras y caballos vivos para ver cómo son destrozados por leones, tigres y otros grandes felinos. Ahora el gobierno chino ha prohibido que los zoológicos estatales participen de semejante crueldad.</p>
<p>Con todo lo bienvenidas que son estas iniciativas, la cantidad de animales en los circos y zoológicos es pequeña en comparación con las decenas de miles de millones de animales que sufren en las granjas industriales. En este ámbito, los países occidentales han dado un ejemplo deplorable.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, recientemente la Unión Europea ha reconocido que el confinamiento intensivo de animales de granja ha ido demasiado lejos. Ya ha prohibido mantener terneros en habitáculos individuales y en seis meses será ilegal en los 27 países de la UE, desde Portugal a Polonia, Gran Bretaña y Grecia, mantener gallinas ponedoras en las jaulas de alambre que hoy predominan en la industria del huevo en todo el mundo. En enero de 2013, también se prohibirá mantener cerdas de cría en habitáculos individuales.</p>
<p>Estados Unidos va a la zaga de Europa en la eliminación de las peores formas de abuso de los animales de granja. El problema no radica en los votantes, que en estados como Florida, Arizona y California han demostrado que quieren que se dé a los animales de granja una mejor protección de la que la industria animal suele ofrecer. Los mayores problemas están en los estados que carecen de un mecanismo para que los ciudadanos puedan iniciar un referéndum al respecto. Lamentablemente, este grupo incluye a los estados del medio oeste y el sur, donde se produce la mayoría de los animales de granja estadounidenses.</p>
<p>El gobierno centralizado de China puede, si así lo decide, asegurarse de que las leyes de bienestar animal se apliquen en todo el país. El movimiento chino por el bienestar animal no debe contentarse con su pequeño pero visible éxito respecto al abuso de animales en los zoológicos. Debe pasar a la meta mucho más importante de mejores condiciones de vida y una muerte más humana para los osos y los animales con pieles de valor comercial, así como para las vacas, cerdos, gallinas ponedoras y pollos.</p>
<p>Quedan muchos otros países con lamentables estándares de bienestar animal. En Indonesia, por ejemplo, Animals Australia grabó vídeos que muestran un trato tan brutal a reses criadas en Australia, que el gobierno australiano suspendió las exportaciones de ganado al país. Algunos parlamentarios están pidiendo una prohibición permanente. Al parecer, la mejor esperanza para seguir avanzando radica en que el bienestar animal, como los derechos humanos, se convierta en un problema internacional que afecte la reputación de los países.</p>
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		<title>The U.N.’s climate of desperation</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35444/the-u-n-%e2%80%99s-climate-of-desperation/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35444/the-u-n-%e2%80%99s-climate-of-desperation/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 28 Jun 2011 14:09:11 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[ONU - OTAN]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>David Rothbard</strong>, president of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow and <strong>Craig Rucker</strong>, CFACT&#8217;s executive director (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 28/06/11):</p>
<p>As the United Nations wrapped up its  recent climate conference in  Bonn, talks organizer Christiana Figueres proclaimed that climate change  is the &#8220;the most important negotiation the world has ever faced.&#8221; Faced  with real problems &#8211; financial meltdowns, unemployment, war and genuine  human suffering &#8211; the world no longer agrees.</p>
<p>It&#8217;s a good thing  human productivity doesn&#8217;t threaten the global thermostat the way the  U.N. would have us believe. If it did, we&#8217;d be cooked. Countries rich  &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35444/the-u-n-%e2%80%99s-climate-of-desperation/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>David Rothbard</strong>, president of the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow and <strong>Craig Rucker</strong>, CFACT&#8217;s executive director (THE WASHINGTON TIMES, 28/06/11):</p>
<p>As the United Nations wrapped up its  recent climate conference in  Bonn, talks organizer Christiana Figueres proclaimed that climate change  is the &#8220;the most important negotiation the world has ever faced.&#8221; Faced  with real problems &#8211; financial meltdowns, unemployment, war and genuine  human suffering &#8211; the world no longer agrees.</p>
<p>It&#8217;s a good thing  human productivity doesn&#8217;t threaten the global thermostat the way the  U.N. would have us believe. If it did, we&#8217;d be cooked. Countries rich  and poor are backing away from commitments they made years ago during  rosier economic times, before the public became aware of Climategate,  renewable energy costs and genuine debate.</p>
<p>The Kyoto Protocol, the  only binding international agreement signed since the global warming  scare began, expires after 2012. Canada, Russia and Japan have declared  they will not renew; China and the United States never signed it, and  the U.S. has made it plain it is not about to. And poor countries are  becoming less enamored about signing on, as they realize hard economic  times mean there will be little climate &#8220;mitigation&#8221; and &#8220;restitution&#8221;  money coming their way from (formerly) rich countries.</p>
<p>Even  die-hard warmists increasingly recognize that bureaucratic solutions  hatched at these conferences are rife with waste, fraud and abuse. They  may enrich a few, but they are powerless to control Earth&#8217;s climate.</p>
<p>In  March, German investigators reported that 850 million euros disappeared  when shady companies swarmed into carbon trading, emissions and energy  businesses.Criminal enterprises raked in tens of millions, fended off  regulators with delaying tactics and then announced bankruptcy or  vanished. An Italian sting operation resulted in arrests of wind-farm  developers who billed the country for subsidies but never produced a  kilowatt of electricity.</p>
<p>London&#8217;s liberal Guardian newspaper was  aghast to learn that the World Bank&#8217;s Biocarbon Fund had arranged to pay  European &#8220;entrepreneurs&#8221; $1 million to establish a system under which  60,000 Kenyans would restrict themselves to farming under rigidly  controlled, inefficient, &#8220;sustainable&#8221; techniques. For that they will  receive $1.4 million over 20 years.</p>
<p>That&#8217;s right, the beneficent  World Bank will enrich more Europeans so 60,000 Kenyans can receive  $23.83 apiece for 20 years of drudgery, poverty and misery &#8211; a princely  $1.19 a year.</p>
<p>Even the European Union finally understands how  little bureaucracy and energy deprivation dictates the climate. &#8220;It is  not enough for the EU to simply sign up for another commitment period,&#8221;  EU climate representative Jurgen Lefevere admitted. &#8220;We only represent  11 percent of global emissions.&#8221;</p>
<p>Burning fossil fuels contributes  only a fraction of total annual atmospheric carbon dioxide buildup, and  the EU contributes just 11 percent of that. The EU&#8217;s commitment to  slashing CO2 emissions by 20 percent invites corruption, has no control  over Chinese or Indian emissions and has no effect on the climate.</p>
<p>The  biggest divide evident in Bonn was between the United States and large  emerging economies. Even Obama administration officials who are  thoroughly committed to man-made global warming catastrophe claims  finally recognize the fraud problem. In Bonn, the U.S. insisted that all  countries subject their emission reduction claims to verification.</p>
<p>However,  China will accept only an agreement that lacks verification &#8211; and  guarantees the right to cheat. Meanwhile, the Chinese are happy to be  &#8220;the world&#8217;s leader&#8221; in manufacturing wind turbines &#8211; 95 percent &#8211; which  they gladly sell to guilt-ridden Western countries.</p>
<p>China and  other nations support the notion that prosperous countries owe the world  restitution for the &#8220;sin&#8221; of engaging in the Industrial Revolution and  becoming prosperous. We can only hope some nation&#8217;s representative will  have the courage to remind China and its fellow climate travelers that  the West never forced them to spend 50 years mired in communism,  bureaucracy and stagnation.</p>
<p>While it is encouraging that the  global warming camp no longer has things entirely its own way,  celebration would be premature. For all the gnashing of teeth and  complaining about corporate influence we hear from global warming  bureaucrats and campaigners, the truth is that, today, the warmists are  the establishment.</p>
<p>Billions are being redistributed to  researchers, developing nations, carbon speculators, alternative energy  investors and other carbon profiteers &#8211; who would like to turn billions  into trillions. Pity the poor carbon traders whose markets expire with  Kyoto. Not all have their villa in the sun yet.</p>
<p>But rest assured,  they will do whatever is necessary to get theirs. Big Warming will not  surrender its hold on Western taxpayers without a fight.</p>
<p>The  warmist camp plans to retake the initiative at the December U.N.  conference in Durban, South Africa. It intends to turn back the clock to  the time when the media would attribute any weather or nature event to  global warming, without question or critical examination. Al Gore&#8217;s  recent Rolling<em></em>Stone diatribe essentially calls on the media to  censure climate disaster skeptics and adopt a one-sided man-made warming  narrative.</p>
<p>The New<em></em>York<em></em>Times may go along, but  the huge and growing alternative media will not. This week&#8217;s Heartland  Institute international conference of climate-alarm skeptics in  Washington will only reinforce the lack of evidence for man-made  Armageddon, and the disastrous consequences of staying the current U.N.  course.</p>
<p>Many believe the last-minute appearance by dozens of world  leaders crippled the Copenhagen climate conference. But with the big  names absent from Cancun, Mexico, and now Bonn, the U.N. wants them  back.</p>
<p>Ms. Figueres capped the Bonn conference with a call for  &#8220;high-level political attention.&#8221; If she succeeds, just imagine the  mischief a gathering of heads of state, foreign ministers, bureaucrats,  researchers, green campaigners and carbon profiteers can do at an  African beach resort.</p>
<p>Then imagine how nearly impossible it will be to repair the harm they inflict. Action must be taken to avert such a result.</p>
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		<title>Geo-Engineering Can Help Save the Planet</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35247/geo-engineering-can-help-save-the-planet/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35247/geo-engineering-can-help-save-the-planet/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 11 Jun 2011 13:52:01 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Thomas E. Lovejoy</strong>, professor of science and public policy at George Mason University and biodiversity chairman at the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 11/06/11):</p>
<p>Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are pushing 400 parts per  million (p.p.m.) — up from the natural pre-industrial level of 280  p.p.m. Emissions for last year were the highest ever. Rather than drift  along until a calamity galvanizes the world, and especially the United  States, into precipitous action, the time to act is now.</p>
<p>The biology of the planet indicates we are already &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/35247/geo-engineering-can-help-save-the-planet/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Thomas E. Lovejoy</strong>, professor of science and public policy at George Mason University and biodiversity chairman at the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 11/06/11):</p>
<p>Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are pushing 400 parts per  million (p.p.m.) — up from the natural pre-industrial level of 280  p.p.m. Emissions for last year were the highest ever. Rather than drift  along until a calamity galvanizes the world, and especially the United  States, into precipitous action, the time to act is now.</p>
<p>The biology of the planet indicates we are already in a danger zone. The  goal of limiting temperature increase to 2 degrees Celsius, as  discussed at the Copenhagen and Cancun climate summits, is actually  disastrous.</p>
<p>As we push the planet’s average temperature increase beyond 0.75°C,  coral reefs (upon which 5 percent of humanity depends) are in increasing  trouble. The balance of the coniferous forests of western North America  has been tipped in favor of wood-boring bark beetles; in many places 70  percent of the trees are dead. The Amazon — which suffered the two  greatest droughts in recorded history in 2005 and 2010 — teeters close  to tipping into dieback, in which the southern and eastern parts of the  forest die and turn into savannah vegetation. Estimates of sea-level  rise continue to climb.</p>
<p>Even more disturbing, scientists have determined that, if we want to  stop at a 2°C increase, global emissions have to peak in 2016. That  seems impossible given current trends. Yet most people seem oblivious to  the danger because of the lag time between reaching a greenhouse gas  concentration level and the heat increase it will cause.</p>
<p>So what to do? One possibility is “geo-engineering” that essentially  takes an engineering approach to the planet’s climate system. An example  would be to release sulfates in large quantity into the atmosphere or  do other things that would reflect back some of the incoming solar  radiation.</p>
<p>There are serious flaws with most geo-engineering solutions because they  treat the symptom (temperature) rather than the cause (elevated levels  of CO2 and other greenhouse gases). That means the moment the solution  falters or stops, the planet goes right back into the ever-warmer  thermal envelope. Such “solutions” also neglect the oceans because  elevated CO2 makes them more acidic. Further, any unintended  consequences of global scale geo-engineering by definition will be  planetary in scale.</p>
<p>It’s far better to address the cause of climate change by lowering  concentrations of greenhouse gases to an acceptable level. That means  going beyond reduction and elimination of emissions to things that can  pull out some of the excess CO2. Fortunately, because living things are  built of carbon, the biology of the planet is capable of just that.</p>
<p>At the moment, roughly half the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere  comes from destruction and degradation of ecosystems over the past three  centuries. A significant amount of CO2 can be withdrawn by ecosystem  restoration on a planetary scale. That means reforestation, restoring  degraded grasslands and pasturelands and practicing agriculture in ways  that restore carbon to the soil. There are additional benefits: forests  benefit watersheds, better grasslands provide better grazing and  agricultural soils become more fertile. This must integrate with  competing uses for land as the population grows, but fortunately it  comes at a time of greater urbanization.</p>
<p>The power of ecosystem restoration to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide  and avoid disruptive climate change is great but insufficient. We also  need to use non-biological means to reduce atmospheric carbon. The  barrier to the latter is simply cost, so a sensible move would be to  initiate a crash program to find more economical ways. Some methods can  build on natural processes that consume CO2, such as the weathering of  rock and soil formation. Other methods could simply convert CO2 into an  inert substance. For example, Vinod Khosla’s Calera experiment has  demonstrated how to pull carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by mixing  it with seawater to produce cement.</p>
<p>All of this must take place as we strive for a future with low carbon  energy sources and lower carbon transportation. It is in our own  self-interest to manage ourselves, the planet and its climate system in  an integrated fashion. We can do so, and there are abundant economic  possibilities in doing so, but the window of opportunity is closing  rapidly.</p>
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		<title>Cuando la prevención es mejor que el socorro</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34881/cuando-la-prevencion-es-mejor-que-el-socorro/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34881/cuando-la-prevencion-es-mejor-que-el-socorro/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 12 May 2011 16:15:38 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Siniestros]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton. Su libro más reciente es <em>The Life You Can Save</em>. Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 12/05/10):</p>
<p>Cuando el terremoto y el maremoto azotaron al Japón en marzo, Brian  Tucker estaba en Padang (Indonesia) trabajando con un colega para idear  un refugio que podría salvar miles de vidas, si un maremoto como el que  en 1797 se alzó del océano Índico, a casi mil kilómetros al sudeste de  donde se originó el maremoto asiático de 2004, volviera a golpear o,  mejor dicho, cuando lo haga. &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34881/cuando-la-prevencion-es-mejor-que-el-socorro/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Peter Singer</strong>, profesor de Bioética en la Universidad de Princeton. Su libro más reciente es <em>The Life You Can Save</em>. Traducido del inglés por Carlos Manzano (Project Syndicate, 12/05/10):</p>
<p>Cuando el terremoto y el maremoto azotaron al Japón en marzo, Brian  Tucker estaba en Padang (Indonesia) trabajando con un colega para idear  un refugio que podría salvar miles de vidas, si un maremoto como el que  en 1797 se alzó del océano Índico, a casi mil kilómetros al sudeste de  donde se originó el maremoto asiático de 2004, volviera a golpear o,  mejor dicho, cuando lo haga. Tucker es el fundador y presidente de  GeoHazards International, organización sin ánimo de lucro cuya misión es  la de reducir las muertes y el sufrimiento causados por terremotos en  las comunidades más vulnerables del mundo.</p>
<p>Padang es una de esas comunidades. Justo al nordoeste de ella, en  Banda Aceh, el maremoto de 2004 causó 160.000 víctimas mortales. Ahora,  según dicen los geólogos, lo más probable es que la falla que  desencadeno aquel maremoto se rompa más al sur, con lo que las ciudades  costeras bajas, como Padang, con una población de 900.000 habitantes,  corren un gran riesgo de padecer un terremoto y maremoto muy potentes  durante los treinta próximos años.</p>
<p>En Banda Aceh, el maremoto mató a más de la mitad de la población de  la ciudad. En Padang, según un cálculo del director de la oficina de  gestión de desastres de la ciudad, un maremoto similar podría matar a  más de 400.000 personas.</p>
<p>Tucker dice que se ha quedado mirando al océano en la playa de Padang  para intentar imaginar lo que sería ver una pared de agua, de cinco  metros de altura y a lo ancho de todo el horizonte, abalanzándose sobre  la ciudad. Ahora que hemos visto las imágenes del maremoto que golpeó al  Japón, no necesitamos pedir tantos esfuerzos a nuestra imaginación,  excepto que debemos imaginar la falta de los muros que el Japón había  construido para reducir el impacto del maremoto.</p>
<p>Es cierto que dichos muros no funcionaron tan bien como se había  esperado, pero, aun así, el Japón estaba mucho mejor preparado para un  maremoto que Padang. En esta última, aun con un aviso por adelantado de  un maremoto, las tierras más altas están demasiado lejos y las estrechas  calles demasiado congestionadas con el tráfico para que muchas personas  llegaran a ellas a salvo y con tiempo.</p>
<p>Así, pues, GeoHazards International está trabajando con una idea más  práctica, llamada Parque de Terreno Elevado de Evacuación ante Maremotos  (PTEEM). Se trata de construir pequeñas colinas con la cima llana en  las partes bajas de la ciudad que se podrían utilizar como parques o  campos de deportes. Con los minutos de aviso que la fuerte sacudida de  un terremoto daría automáticamente, la población podría caminar hasta un  PTEEM y quedar a salvo por encima del nivel más alto que pudiera  alcanzar un maremoto.</p>
<p>Semejantes parques de terreno elevado son una solución poco costosa  para el peligro de maremotos en las zonas costeras bajas. Requieren sólo  la utilización de materiales locales, brindan un recurso comunitario  valioso para tiempos normales y ofrecen la posibilidad de salvar  centenares de miles de vidas cuando azote un maremoto.</p>
<p>No obstante, GeoHazards International carece de los recursos para  construir  los suficientes PTEEM necesarios. Después de veinte años de  funcionamiento, la organización sigue siendo pequeña, sobre todo si se  la compara con organizaciones como la Cruz Roja, que se encargan  primordialmente de las tareas de socorro en casos de desastre. Las  personas están dispuestas a donar centenares de millones de dólares para  ayudar a otras personas <em>después de</em> un desastre –incluso en el  caso de un desastre en un país rico como el Japón–, pero no están  dispuestas a invertir nada parecido para salvar vidas <em>antes de</em> que azote un desastre predecible.</p>
<p>Una razón es la de que la prevención de un desastre no resulta  interesante en la televisión. La gente dona para las víctimas  identificables. Si construimos parques de terreno elevado, nunca veremos  a las personas que, de no ser por nuestra ayuda, habrían muerto: en los  telediarios de la noche no aparecerán huérfanos desesperadamente  necesitados, pero, ¿acaso no es mucho mejor mantener a salvo a los  padres que ayudar a los huérfanos después de que sus padres hayan  resultado muertos?</p>
<p>Se trata de una situación en la que debemos ejercer la imaginación  para entender y sentirnos motivados por el bien que hacemos.  Lamentablemente, no todo el mundo puede hacerlo.</p>
<p>Otra razón por la que no donamos para prevenir desastres ha de  resultar familiar a quienquiera que haya retrasado la visita al dentista  porque la perspectiva de un dolor intenso en las próximas semanas o  meses no era tan motivadora como la renuencia a afrontar una ligera  incomodidad más inmediata. Nos decimos que, al fin y al cabo, tal vez no  nos dé un dolor de muelas, aun sabiendo que lo más probable es que así  sea.</p>
<p>La mayoría de nosotros no somos muy duchos en sopesar adecuadamente  los acontecimientos futuros, sobre todo si son inciertos. Así, pues,  podemos decirnos que los geólogos podrían estar equivocados y tal vez  ningún maremoto golpee a Padang en los treinta próximos años y en ese  momento tal vez contemos con nuevas y mejores tecnologías para  predecirlos, con lo que la población dispondrá de más tiempo para  trasladarse a tierras más altas.</p>
<p>En cambio, deberíamos guiarnos por los cálculos más fiables de las  probabilidades de que una intervención salve vidas, además de por el  número de vidas que se salvarían y el costo de salvarlas. Las pruebas de  que disponemos indican que la construcción de parques de terreno  elevado en lugares como Padang sería en verdad muy valiosa.</p>
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		<title>Le genre humain, menacé</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34401/le-genre-humain-menace/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34401/le-genre-humain-menace/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 02 Apr 2011 19:52:43 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Par <strong>Michel Rocard</strong>, ancien premier ministre, coauteur avec Alain Juppé de &#8220;La politique, telle qu&#8217;elle meurt de ne pas être&#8221;, <strong>Dominique Bourg</strong>, professeur à la faculté des géosciences et de l&#8217;environnement de l&#8217;université de Lausanne, membre du Comité de veille écologique de la Fondation Nicolas Hulot, et <strong>Floran Augagneur</strong>, philosophe, il enseigne la philosophie de l&#8217;écologie à l&#8217;Institut d&#8217;études politiques de Paris (LE MONDE, 02/04/11):</p>
<p>Une information  fondamentale publiée par l&#8217;Agence internationale de l&#8217;énergie (AIE) est  passée totalement inaperçue : le pic pétrolier s&#8217;est produit en 2006.  Alors que la demande mondiale continuera à croître avec la &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34401/le-genre-humain-menace/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Par <strong>Michel Rocard</strong>, ancien premier ministre, coauteur avec Alain Juppé de &#8220;La politique, telle qu&#8217;elle meurt de ne pas être&#8221;, <strong>Dominique Bourg</strong>, professeur à la faculté des géosciences et de l&#8217;environnement de l&#8217;université de Lausanne, membre du Comité de veille écologique de la Fondation Nicolas Hulot, et <strong>Floran Augagneur</strong>, philosophe, il enseigne la philosophie de l&#8217;écologie à l&#8217;Institut d&#8217;études politiques de Paris (LE MONDE, 02/04/11):</p>
<p>Une information  fondamentale publiée par l&#8217;Agence internationale de l&#8217;énergie (AIE) est  passée totalement inaperçue : le pic pétrolier s&#8217;est produit en 2006.  Alors que la demande mondiale continuera à croître avec la montée en  puissance des pays émergents (Chine, Inde et Brésil), la production de  pétrole conventionnel va connaître un déclin inexorable après avoir  plafonné. La crise économique masque pour l&#8217;heure cette réalité.</p>
<p>Mais  elle obérera tout retour de la croissance. La remontée des coûts  d&#8217;exploration-production fera naître des tensions extrêmement vives.  L&#8217;exploitation du charbon et des réserves fossiles non conventionnelles  exigera des investissements lourds et progressifs qui ne permettront  guère de desserrer l&#8217;étau des prix à un horizon de temps proche. Les  prix de l&#8217;énergie ne peuvent ainsi que s&#8217;affoler.</p>
<p>Le silence et  l&#8217;ignorance d&#8217;une grande partie de la classe politique sur ce sujet ne  sont guère plus rassurants. Et cela sans tenir compte du fait que nous  aurons relâché et continuerons à dissiper dans l&#8217;atmosphère le dioxyde  de carbone stocké pendant des millénaires&#8230; Chocs pétroliers à  répétition jusqu&#8217;à l&#8217;effondrement et péril climatique. Voilà donc ce que  nous préparent les tenants des stratégies de l&#8217;aveuglement. La  catastrophe de Fukushima alourdira encore la donne énergétique.</p>
<p>De  telles remarques génèrent souvent de grands malentendus. Les objections  diagnostiquent et dénoncent aussitôt les prophètes de malheur comme le  symptôme d&#8217;une société sur le déclin, qui ne croit plus au progrès. Ces  stratégies de l&#8217;aveuglement sont absurdes. Affirmer que notre époque est  caractérisée par une &#8220;épistémophobie&#8221; ou la recherche du risque zéro  est une grave erreur d&#8217;analyse, elle éclipse derrière des réactions aux  processus d&#8217;adaptation la cause du bouleversement.</p>
<p>Ce qui change  radicalement la donne, c&#8217;est que notre vulnérabilité est désormais issue  de l&#8217;incroyable étendue de notre puissance. L&#8217;&#8221;indisponible&#8221; à l&#8217;action  des hommes, le tiers intouchable, est désormais modifiable, soit par  l&#8217;action collective (nos consommations cumulées) soit par un individu  isolé (&#8220;biohackers&#8221;). Nos démocraties se retrouvent démunies face à deux  aspects de ce que nous avons rendu disponible : l&#8217;atteinte aux  mécanismes régulateurs de la biosphère et aux substrats biologiques de  la condition humaine.</p>
<p>Cette situation fait apparaître <em>&#8220;le spectre menaçant de la tyrannie&#8221; </em>évoqué  par le philosophe allemand Hans Jonas. Parce que nos démocraties  n&#8217;auront pas été capables de se prémunir de leurs propres excès, elles  risquent de basculer dans l&#8217;état d&#8217;exception et de céder aux dérives  totalitaristes.</p>
<p>Prenons l&#8217;exemple de la controverse climatique.  Comme le démontre la comparaison entre les études de l&#8217;historienne des  sciences Naomi Oreskes avec celles du politologue Jules Boykoff, les  évolutions du système médiatique jouent dans cette affaire un rôle  majeur. Alors que la première ne répertoria aucune contestation directe  de l&#8217;origine anthropique du réchauffement climatique dans les revues  scientifiques <em>peer reviewed</em> (&#8220;à comité de lecture&#8221;), le second a  constaté sur la période étudiée que 53 % des articles grand public de la  presse américaine mettaient en doute les conclusions scientifiques.</p>
<p>Ce  décalage s&#8217;explique par le remplacement du souci d&#8217;une information  rigoureuse par une volonté de flatter le goût du spectacle. Les sujets  scientifiques complexes sont traités de façon simpliste (pour ou  contre). Ceci explique en partie les résultats de l&#8217;étude de l&#8217;Agence de  l&#8217;environnement et de la maîtrise de l&#8217;énergie (Ademe) pilotée par  Daniel Boy sur les représentations sociales de l&#8217;effet de serre  démontrant un sérieux décrochage du pourcentage de Français attribuant  le dérèglement climatique aux activités humaines (65 % en 2010, contre  81 % en 2009). Ces dérives qui engendrent doute et scepticisme au sein  de la population permettent aux dirigeants actuels, dont le manque de  connaissance scientifique est alarmant, de justifier leur inaction.</p>
<p>Le  sommet de Cancun a sauvé le processus de négociation en réussissant en  outre à y intégrer les grands pays émergents. Mais des accords  contraignants à la hauteur de l&#8217;objectif des seconds sont encore loin.  S&#8217;il en est ainsi, c&#8217;est parce que les dirigeants de la planète (à  l&#8217;exception notable de quelques-uns) ont décidé de nier les conclusions  scientifiques pour se décharger de l&#8217;ampleur des responsabilités en jeu.  Comment pourraient-ils à la fois croire en la catastrophe et ne rien  faire, ou si peu, pour l&#8217;éviter ?</p>
<p>Enfermée dans le court terme des  échéances électorales et dans le temps médiatique, la politique s&#8217;est  peu à peu transformée en gestion des affaires courantes. Elle est  devenue incapable de penser le temps long. Or la crise écologique  renverse une perception du progrès où le temps joue en notre faveur.  Parce que nous créons les moyens de l&#8217;appauvrissement de la vie sur  terre et que nous nions la possibilité de la catastrophe, nous rendons  celle-ci crédible.</p>
<p>Il est impossible de connaître le point de  basculement définitif vers l&#8217;improbable ; en revanche, il est certain  que le risque de le dépasser est inversement proportionnel à la rapidité  de notre réaction. Nous ne pouvons attendre et tergiverser sur la  controverse climatique jusqu&#8217;au point de basculement, le moment où la  multiplication des désastres naturels dissipera ce qu&#8217;il reste de doute.  Il sera alors trop tard. Lorsque les océans se seront réchauffés, nous  n&#8217;aurons aucun moyen de les refroidir.</p>
<p>La démocratie sera la  première victime de l&#8217;altération des conditions universelles d&#8217;existence  que nous sommes en train de programmer. Les catastrophes écologiques  qui se préparent à l&#8217;échelle mondiale dans un contexte de croissance  démographique, les inégalités dues à la rareté locale de l&#8217;eau, la fin  de l&#8217;énergie bon marché, la raréfaction de nombre de minéraux, la  dégradation de la biodiversité, l&#8217;érosion et la dégradation des sols,  les événements climatiques extrêmes&#8230; produiront les pires inégalités  entre ceux qui auront les moyens de s&#8217;en protéger, pour un temps, et  ceux qui les subiront. Elles ébranleront les équilibres géopolitiques et  seront sources de conflits.</p>
<p>L&#8217;ampleur des catastrophes sociales  qu&#8217;elles risquent d&#8217;engendrer a, par le passé, conduit à la disparition  de sociétés entières. C&#8217;est, hélas, une réalité historique objective. A  cela s&#8217;ajoutera le fait que des nouvelles technologies de plus en plus  facilement accessibles fourniront des armes de destruction massive à la  portée de toutes les bourses et des esprits les plus tourmentés.</p>
<p>Lorsque  l&#8217;effondrement de l&#8217;espèce apparaîtra comme une possibilité  envisageable, l&#8217;urgence n&#8217;aura que faire de nos processus, lents et  complexes, de délibération. Pris de panique, l&#8217;Occident transgressera  ses valeurs de liberté et de justice. Pour s&#8217;être heurtées aux limites  physiques, les sociétés seront livrées à la violence des hommes. Nul ne  peut contester a priori le risque que les démocraties cèdent sous de  telles menaces.</p>
<p>Le stade ultime sera l&#8217;autodestruction de  l&#8217;existence humaine, soit physiquement, soit par l&#8217;altération  biologique. Le processus de convergence des nouvelles technologies  donnera à l&#8217;individu un pouvoir monstrueux capable de faire naître des  sous-espèces. C&#8217;est l&#8217;unité du genre humain qui sera atteinte. Il ne  s&#8217;agit guère de l&#8217;avenir, il s&#8217;agit du présent. Le cyborg n&#8217;est déjà  plus une figure de style cinématographique, mais une réalité de  laboratoire, puisqu&#8217;il est devenu possible, grâce à des fonds publics,  d&#8217;associer des cellules neuronales humaines à des dispositifs  artificiels.</p>
<p>L&#8217;idéologie du progrès a mal tourné. Les inégalités  planétaires actuelles auraient fait rougir de honte les concepteurs du  projet moderne, Bacon, Descartes ou Hegel. A l&#8217;époque des Lumières, il  n&#8217;existait aucune région du monde, en dehors des peuples vernaculaires,  où la richesse moyenne par habitant aurait été le double d&#8217;une autre.  Aujourd&#8217;hui, le ratio atteint 1 à 428 (entre le Zimbabwe et le Qatar).</p>
<p>Les  échecs répétés des conférences de l&#8217;ONU montrent bien que nous sommes  loin d&#8217;unir les nations contre la menace et de dépasser les intérêts  immédiats et égoïstes des Etats comme des individus. Les enjeux, tant  pour la gouvernance internationale et nationale que pour l&#8217;avenir  macroéconomique, sont de nous libérer du culte de la compétitivité, de  la croissance qui nous ronge et de la civilisation de la pauvreté dans  le gaspillage.</p>
<p>Le nouveau paradigme doit émerger. Les outils  conceptuels sont présents, que ce soit dans les précieux travaux du  Britannique Tim Jackson ou dans ceux de la Prix Nobel d&#8217;économie 2009,  l&#8217;Américaine Elinor Ostrom, ainsi que dans diverses initiatives de la  société civile.</p>
<p>Nos démocraties doivent se restructurer,  démocratiser la culture scientifique et maîtriser l&#8217;immédiateté qui  contredit la prise en compte du temps long. Nous pouvons encore  transformer la menace en promesse désirable et crédible. Mais si nous  n&#8217;agissons pas promptement, c&#8217;est à la barbarie que nous sommes certains  de nous exposer.</p>
<p>Pour cette raison, répondre à la crise  écologique est un devoir moral absolu. Les ennemis de la démocratie sont  ceux qui remettent à plus tard les réponses aux enjeux et défis de  l&#8217;écologie.</p>
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		<title>C&#8217;est le mythe du progrès et de la sécurité qui est en train de s&#8217;effondrer</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34265/cest-le-mythe-du-progres-et-de-la-securite-qui-est-en-train-de-seffondrer/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34265/cest-le-mythe-du-progres-et-de-la-securite-qui-est-en-train-de-seffondrer/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 25 Mar 2011 22:58:19 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía Nuclear]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=34265</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Par <strong>Ulrich Beck</strong>, sociologue allemand. Traduction Christian Bouchindhomme (LE MONDE, 25/03/11):</p>
<p>Parler de &#8220;société du  risque mondialisé&#8221;, c&#8217;est parler d&#8217;une époque au sein de laquelle la  face obscure du progrès détermine de plus en plus les controverses  sociales. Que les plus grands dangers viennent de nous n&#8217;a d&#8217;abord été  une évidence pour personne, et on l&#8217;a contesté ; or c&#8217;est un fait qui  est en train de devenir la force motrice de la politique. Les dangers  nucléaires, le changement climatique, la crise financière, le  11-Septembre, etc. Tout cela s&#8217;est produit conformément au scénario que  je décrivais il y a vingt-cinq &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34265/cest-le-mythe-du-progres-et-de-la-securite-qui-est-en-train-de-seffondrer/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Par <strong>Ulrich Beck</strong>, sociologue allemand. Traduction Christian Bouchindhomme (LE MONDE, 25/03/11):</p>
<p>Parler de &#8220;société du  risque mondialisé&#8221;, c&#8217;est parler d&#8217;une époque au sein de laquelle la  face obscure du progrès détermine de plus en plus les controverses  sociales. Que les plus grands dangers viennent de nous n&#8217;a d&#8217;abord été  une évidence pour personne, et on l&#8217;a contesté ; or c&#8217;est un fait qui  est en train de devenir la force motrice de la politique. Les dangers  nucléaires, le changement climatique, la crise financière, le  11-Septembre, etc. Tout cela s&#8217;est produit conformément au scénario que  je décrivais il y a vingt-cinq ans, avant même la catastrophe de  Tchernobyl.</p>
<p>A la différence des risques industriels des époques passées, ceux  d&#8217;aujourd&#8217;hui ne connaissent pas de limites, qu&#8217;elles soient  géographiques, temporelles ou sociales ; aucune des règles en vigueur ne  permet de les imputer à quiconque, tant en termes de causalité que de  faute ou de responsabilité ; enfin ils ne peuvent être ni compensés, ni  assurés. Là où les assurances privées renoncent à protéger – et c&#8217;est le  cas pour l&#8217;énergie nucléaire comme pour les nouvelles technologies  génétiques – la frontière entre risques calculables et dangers  incalculables ne cesse d&#8217;être franchie. Produits par l&#8217;industrie, ces  dangers potentiels sont en outre externalisés par l&#8217;économie,  individualisés par le droit, légitimés par la technologie et minimisés  par les politiques. Bref : le système de réglementation qui doit assurer  le contrôle &#8220;rationnel&#8221; de ces potentiels d&#8217;autodestruction en marche  vaut ce que vaut un frein de bicyclette sur un <em>jumbo-jet</em>.</p>
<p>Mais ne faut-il pas distinguer Fukushima de Tchernobyl ? Les  événements qui se déroulent au Japon sont en effet issus d&#8217;une  catastrophe naturelle et le potentiel de destruction qui y est à l&#8217;œuvre  n&#8217;est pas la conséquence d&#8217;une décision humaine, mais d&#8217;un tremblement  de terre et d&#8217;un tsunami.</p>
<p><strong>DES </strong><strong>RISQUES LIÉS À LA DÉCISION</strong></p>
<p>La notion de &#8220;catastrophe naturelle&#8221; permet en effet d&#8217;indiquer ce  qui n&#8217;a pas été causé par l&#8217;homme et dont il ne saurait être tenu, par  conséquent, pour responsable. N&#8217;est-ce pas là toutefois une vision qui  appartient aux siècles passés ? En lui-même, ce concept est déjà faux,  puisque la nature ne connaît pas de &#8220;catastrophes&#8221;, tout au plus des  processus soudains de transformation. Des transformations telles qu&#8217;un  tremblement de terre ou un tsunami ne deviennent des &#8220;catastrophes&#8221;  qu&#8217;en référence à la civilisation humaine. Par ailleurs, la décision de  construire des centrales nucléaires sur des zones sismiques n&#8217;est  sûrement pas un événement naturel – c&#8217;est une décision politique qu&#8217;il a  fallu justifier en tenant compte des exigences de sécurité dues aux  citoyens, et qu&#8217;il a fallu imposer à ceux qui s&#8217;y opposaient. En ce qui  concerne non seulement la construction des usines nucléaires, mais  également celle des immeubles de grande hauteur, et même le plan  d&#8217;urbanisme dans son ensemble s&#8217;agissant d&#8217;une métropole internationale  comme Tokyo (ce qui n&#8217;exclut pas les villes plus petites), les  prétendues &#8220;catastrophes naturelles&#8221; se transforment en risques liés à  la décision ; ceux-ci sont donc – au moins en principe – imputables à  des décideurs. Ce que l&#8217;actualité japonaise permet de bien percevoir  c&#8217;est à quel point ce qui est imputable à la nature et ce qui l&#8217;est à la  technique et aux compétences humaines sont directement enchevêtrés l&#8217;un  à l&#8217;autre.</p>
<p>De manière très générale : on parle de &#8220;catastrophes naturelles&#8221; et  de &#8220;dangers pour l&#8217;environnement&#8221; à un moment de l&#8217;histoire où n&#8217;existe  précisément plus quelque chose comme une &#8220;pure nature&#8221; que l&#8217;on pourrait  opposer à la technique et à la société. Ce que l&#8217;un – disons  l&#8217;industrie chimique – pollue et que l&#8217;on appelle alors &#8220;environnement&#8221;  est tout bonnement ce que l&#8217;autre – disons l&#8217;agriculture, le tourisme ou  la pêche – a à offrir sur le marché.</p>
<p>L&#8217;industrie nucléaire a appris quelque chose du mouvement  écologiste : dans la course au refoulement des risques majeurs, on peut  ne plus nier le &#8220;risque résiduel&#8221; – et on s&#8217;emploie à gagner un coup  d&#8217;avance en noircissant les solutions concurrentes. Dans la surenchère  des apocalypses possibles, la mise en scène publique des risques donne  lieu à un jeu différé : plus je noircis le concurrent et plus  j&#8217;éclaircis du même coup ma propre noirceur – jusqu&#8217;à la faire  blancheur. C&#8217;est ainsi, paradoxalement, que l&#8217;aggravation du changement  climatique a ouvert de nouveaux marchés mondiaux aux centrales  nucléaires.</p>
<p>La réponse aux risques modernes se trouvait dans l&#8217;assurance comme  &#8220;technologie morale&#8221; (François Ewald). Nous pouvions ne plus être  nécessairement asservis à la providence et aux coups du destin. Le  rapport à la nature, au monde et à Dieu changeait : désormais, nous  étions responsables de notre propre malheur, tout en disposant en  principe des moyens d&#8217;en compenser les conséquences. C&#8217;est ainsi en tout  cas qu&#8217;a fonctionné le mythe de la &#8220;vie assurée&#8221;, triomphant depuis le  XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle dans tous les domaines.</p>
<p>Il a réussi effectivement à faire que les anciens risques de l&#8217;époque  industrielle ont été l&#8217;objet d&#8217;un consensus du fait qu&#8217;ils reposaient  sur une sorte de suivi de précaution (incendie, assurance, prises en  charge psychologique, médicale, etc.). Or si nous sommes choqués à la  vue des images de désolation qui nous viennent du Japon, cela tient  aussi à l&#8217;intuition, entre chiens et loups, dont elles s&#8217;accompagnent :  il n&#8217;existe aujourd&#8217;hui aucune institution, ni réelle ni même simplement  concevable, qui soit préparée au &#8220;plus grand accident raisonnablement  prévisible&#8221;, aucune institution, par conséquent, qui puisse, à cette fin  des fins, garantir l&#8217;ordre social et la constitution culturelle et  politique. </p>
<p>Bien des acteurs, en revanche, se spécialisent dans le déni du  danger, désormais possible. En effet à la sécurité par le suivi de  précaution s&#8217;est substitué le dogme sacré de l&#8217;infaillibilité. Chaque  pays – en particulier naturellement la France, l&#8217;expert nucléaire  Sarkozy sait bien cela – a le parc de centrales le plus sûr du monde !  Les gardiennes du dogme, ce sont la science et l&#8217;économie nucléaires,  celles-là mêmes que l&#8217;on vient de prendre, sous les feux de l&#8217;espace  public mondial, en flagrant délit d&#8217;erreur. A l&#8217;époque des événements de  Tchernobyl (1986), Franz-Josef Strauss prétendait que seuls les  réacteurs nucléaires &#8220;communistes&#8221; étaient susceptibles d&#8217;exploser –  sous-entendu : l&#8217;Occident capitaliste développé dispose de centrales  beaucoup plus sûres. Mais les avaries d&#8217;aujourd&#8217;hui se sont produites au  Japon, pays high-tech, qui passe pour le mieux équipé et le plus  sécurisé possible. La fiction selon laquelle, en Occident, nous  baignerions dans la sécurité, a vécu. La simple question : &#8220;Que se  passerait-il, si jamais…?&#8221; tombe dans le vide d&#8217;une absence de  précaution. Aussi la stabilité politique dans les sociétés du risque ne  tient-elle qu&#8217;à cette autre stabilité : se donner des raisons de ne pas  envisager le problème.</p>
<p>En tout cas, ce mythe de la sécurité de la rationalité technique est  en train d&#8217;exploser aux yeux du monde entier, dans toutes les salles de  séjour, avec les événements dramatiques de Fukushima. Quelle  signification peut donc encore avoir une sécurité fondée sur la  probabilité – et avec elle une analyse du risque fondée sur la technique  et les sciences de la nature – quand il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;estimer l&#8217;accident le  plus grave rationnellement prévisible, quand sa survenue laissera bien  sûr la théorie intacte, mais aura annihilé toute vie ? Ce qui conduit à  cette autre question : à quoi bon un système juridique qui réglemente  dans le moindre détail les petits risques techniquement négociables,  mais use de son autorité pour légaliser et faire supporter comme &#8220;risque  résiduel&#8221; acceptable des dangers majeurs qui menacent la vie de tous ?</p>
<p>C&#8217;est à la &#8220;girouette de l&#8217;atome&#8221; – figure assez bien incarnée par la  chancelière Angela Merkel – qu&#8217;on appréciera le dilemme d&#8217;une politique  pro-nucléaire. Comment une autorité politique peut-elle se maintenir  quand il lui faut aller au devant de la conscience que ses électeurs ont  des dangers en leur tenant des propos énergiques sur leur sécurité, et  se mettre du même coup en situation permanente d&#8217;accusée virtuelle  possible, sa crédibilité dans son ensemble étant remise en cause au  moindre signe de catastrophe ?</p>
<p>Que ce qu&#8217;il reste d&#8217;espoir au Japon réside précisément dans  l&#8217;intervention des &#8220;forces d&#8217;autodéfense&#8221;, chargées de se substituer à  un système de refroidissement défaillant en larguant de l&#8217;eau de mer  depuis des hélicoptères, est plus qu&#8217;ironique – auto-défense ou défense  contre soi-même ? Hiroshima fut effroyable – l&#8217;horreur absolue. Mais du  moins était-ce l&#8217;ennemi qui avait frappé. Que se passe-t-il quand  l&#8217;effroi provient de la zone productive de la société – et non de  militaires ? Ceux qui mettent aujourd&#8217;hui la nation en péril, ce sont  les garants du droit, de l&#8217;ordre, de la rationalité, de la démocratie  elle-même. Quelle politique industrielle aurait-il fallu défendre, si le  vent porteur du dernier espoir avait tourné et si Tokyo avait été  contaminée ? A quelle crise de la technologie, de la démocratie, de la  raison, de la société faudrait-il nous attendre ?</p>
<p>Certains se plaignent de ce que les images traumatisantes qui nous  viennent du Japon produiraient de fausses peurs et joueraient d&#8217;une  &#8220;pseudo-science&#8221; de l&#8217;empathie. Mais c&#8217;est méconnaître avec une totale  naïveté la dynamique politique inhérente au potentiel – généralement  sous-estimé – d&#8217;autodestruction du capitalisme industriel triomphant.  Bien des dangers – à l&#8217;exemple même des radiations nucléaires – sont en  effet invisibles ; ils se dérobent à la perception quotidienne. Il  s&#8217;ensuit que la destruction comme la protestation ne sont donc  exprimables qu&#8217;au moyen de symboles. Le citoyen de base, qui, eu égard à  des menaces échappant de toute façon aux sens, est culturellement  dépourvu d&#8217;yeux, peut devenir &#8220;voyant&#8221; grâce aux images télévisées.</p>
<p>La question de savoir s&#8217;il peut exister un sujet révolutionnaire  capable de renverser le rapport de forces qui conduit à définir la  politique du risque est une question qui tourne à vide (qui définit ce  qu&#8217;est un risque sérieux et ce qui ne l&#8217;est pas ? Sur la base de quelles  hypothèses cognitives ?). Les mouvements anti-nucléaires, la  médiatisation des interventions critiques dans la sphère publique, etc.,  tout cela ne peut enclencher un retournement de la politique nucléaire –  ils n&#8217;y parviendront pas en tout cas avec leurs seuls moyens. En fin de  compte, s&#8217;il existe un contre-pouvoir nucléaire, ce n&#8217;est pas tant du  côté des manifestants qui bloquent les transports de combustible qu&#8217;il  faut le rechercher. Le fer de lance de l&#8217;opposition à l&#8217;énergie  nucléaire réside… dans l&#8217;industrie nucléaire elle-même.</p>
<p>Le mythe de la sécurité est en train de se consumer dans les images  de catastrophes dont les exploitants nucléaires avaient catégoriquement  exclu la possibilité. S&#8217;il est entendu, justifié, que les gardiens de la  rationalité et de l&#8217;ordre légalisent et normalisent la mise en danger  de la vie, alors les milieux bureaucratiques de la sécurité promise ont  beaucoup de soucis à se faire. Il n&#8217;est pas faux, dès lors, de dire qu&#8217;à  la question du &#8220;sujet politique&#8221; dans la société de classes correspond,  dans la société du risque, la question de la &#8220;réflexivité politique&#8221;.</p>
<p>Ce serait cependant une erreur d&#8217;en conclure que les Lumières sont  entrées dans une nouvelle phase dont l&#8217;Histoire, dans sa grande charité,  nous ferait l&#8217;offrande. On peut aussi préférer estimer, tout au  contraire, que la perspective ici esquissée évoque le stratagème de  marins qui voudraient évacuer l&#8217;eau qui envahit leur navire en perçant  un trou au fond de la cale.</p>
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		<title>Quelles leçons tirer de l&#8217;accident de Fukushima ?</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34264/quelles-lecons-tirer-de-laccident-de-fukushima/</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 25 Mar 2011 22:47:17 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía Nuclear]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Didier Kechemair</strong>, consultant indépendant (LE MONDE, 25/03/11):</p>
<p>Le nombre des victimes  des catastrophes naturelles du 11 mars au Japon dépassera 20 000 morts  ou disparus. C&#8217;est un drame humain, avant tout. Sur les quatre centrales  nucléaires affectées, onze réacteurs ont été automatiquement arrêtés,  un risque d&#8217;explosion du type Tchernobyl était dès lors évité. Tous les  bâtiments ont résisté. A Fukushima-Dai-Ichi, l&#8217;enchaînement des  événements a conduit à un accident grave, de niveau 6 sur l&#8217;échelle INES  (<a href="http://www.irsn.fr/FR/base_de_connaissances/Installations_nucleaires/La_surete_Nucleaire/organisation_surete_nucleaire/echelle-ines/Pages/sommaire.aspx" target="_blank">échelle internationale des événements nucléaires</a>).  Il semble que la situation soit stabilisée grâce au travail et au  courage physique des ingénieurs, &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34264/quelles-lecons-tirer-de-laccident-de-fukushima/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Didier Kechemair</strong>, consultant indépendant (LE MONDE, 25/03/11):</p>
<p>Le nombre des victimes  des catastrophes naturelles du 11 mars au Japon dépassera 20 000 morts  ou disparus. C&#8217;est un drame humain, avant tout. Sur les quatre centrales  nucléaires affectées, onze réacteurs ont été automatiquement arrêtés,  un risque d&#8217;explosion du type Tchernobyl était dès lors évité. Tous les  bâtiments ont résisté. A Fukushima-Dai-Ichi, l&#8217;enchaînement des  événements a conduit à un accident grave, de niveau 6 sur l&#8217;échelle INES  (<a href="http://www.irsn.fr/FR/base_de_connaissances/Installations_nucleaires/La_surete_Nucleaire/organisation_surete_nucleaire/echelle-ines/Pages/sommaire.aspx" target="_blank">échelle internationale des événements nucléaires</a>).  Il semble que la situation soit stabilisée grâce au travail et au  courage physique des ingénieurs, techniciens, pompiers sur place.</p>
<p>Lorsque la situation de crise sera dépassée, ce qui n&#8217;est pas le cas,  le retour d&#8217;expérience sera un élément majeur pour fournir des données  factuelles.</p>
<p>La nature des moyens qui ont permis de maîtriser la situation  (camions de pompiers, hélicoptères militaires, pompe à béton) montre que  la sécurité des infrastructures critiques doit bien relever du niveau  des Etats. Le rôle des exercices de crise en vraie grandeur, impliquant  la population, se verra sans doute renforcé.</p>
<p>Pour le parc en exploitation, des revues de sûreté ont été demandées  après le 11 mars dans plusieurs pays, dont la France. De telles revues  sont conduites par EDF après une canicule ou une tempête. La  standardisation du parc permet de valoriser les enseignements tirés. Le  dialogue entre les autorités de sûreté nationales et les exploitants  pour la prolongation des licences tiendra également compte de  l&#8217;accident : Fukushima 1, réacteur à eau bouillante mis en service en  mars 1971 (modèle de General Electric) venait de recevoir sa  prolongation de licence pour dix ans. Pour les nouvelles constructions,  l&#8217;accident du Japon aura un impact sur les coûts du génie civil.  Faudra-t-il par exemple s&#8217;éloigner du bord de mer malgré la longueur des  canalisations à creuser ?</p>
<p>En France, scientifiques, responsables publics et industriels se sont  mobilisés dans les médias ; les sites Internet institutionnels et  indépendants ont fourni des bulletins réguliers d&#8217;information en  fonction des données communiquées par les responsables japonais. Cette  gestion de la communication constitue en soi un enseignement.</p>
<p><strong>MUTUALISER</strong></p>
<p>L&#8217;accident de Fukushima souligne par ailleurs la nécessité de renforcer la coopération internationale.</p>
<p>Des programmes de R&amp;D concernant la sûreté pourront être plus  ouverts encore à l&#8217;international : résistance aux séismes sur des  installations comme Tamaris (<em>European Facility for Advanced Seismic Testing</em>) ;  comportement des matériaux de cœur fondu (corium) et leur interaction  avec les bétons, étudiés avec l&#8217;Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté  nucléaire (IRSN) sur les installations du Commissariat à l&#8217;énergie  atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA). Il serait aussi possible de  mutualiser des moyens d&#8217;intervention entre pays à une échelle régionale  à l&#8217;image du Groupe d&#8217;intervention robotique sur accidents (INTRA) en  France. L&#8217;envoi de ces robots conçus pour résister aux radiations a été  proposé aux autorités japonaises.</p>
<p>Les échanges entre autorités de sûreté nationales seront à renforcer, ce qui exigera des moyens. Le <em>Multinational Design Evaluation Program</em> (MDEP) vise déjà à mutualiser leurs ressources pour l&#8217;évaluation de nouveaux réacteurs.</p>
<p>La croissance de la demande énergétique mondiale est un fait ; 1,6  milliards d&#8217;habitants n&#8217;ont pas accès à l&#8217;électricité. A côté d&#8217;efforts  accrus pour les économies d&#8217;énergie et les énergies renouvelables, le  nucléaire apporte 16 % de la production d&#8217;électricité mondiale quasiment  sans émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Plus de 60 pays ont exprimé à  l&#8217;Agence internationale de l&#8217;énergie atomique (IAEA) leur intérêt pour  le nucléaire. Développer le nucléaire civil représente une opportunité  et une responsabilité. Les événements de Fukushima-Dai-Ichi le  confirment : la sûreté doit être la priorité absolue.</p>
<p>Avec humilité, admettons que le risque zéro n&#8217;existe pas, que le  nucléaire n&#8217;est en aucun cas la seule option, ni une option pertinente  partout. Dans ce domaine, aller trop vite trop loin serait sans nul  doute irresponsable. La confiance, la culture de sûreté et de progrès  continu, nécessaires pour que le nucléaire trouve sa place dans un &#8220;mix  énergétique&#8221; mondial durable, se construiront dans la clarté et la  durée. Nul dogme dans cette conviction. La science et les technologies  ouvrent aujourd&#8217;hui des débats &#8220;incertains&#8221; : biologie, climat,  énergies. Acceptons-les, gardons confiance en notre capacité d&#8217;apprendre  et dans celle des générations futures.</p>
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		<title>Ciudades y cambio climático: retos, oportunidades y experiencias</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34182/ciudades-y-cambio-climatico-retos-oportunidades-y-experiencias/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34182/ciudades-y-cambio-climatico-retos-oportunidades-y-experiencias/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Mon, 21 Mar 2011 18:51:13 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Medio ambiente]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Lara Lázaro Touza</strong>, investigadora, Real Instituto Elcano (REAL INSTITUTO ELCANO, 21/03/11):</p>
<p><strong>Tema:</strong> Las ciudades emiten entre el 60% y el 80% de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) a nivel mundial, y consumen aproximadamente esos mismos porcentajes de la energía mundial. Además, tienen un gran potencial de mitigación. Estas características hacen que la ciudad sea un espacio clave en la consecución de futuros compromisos climáticos.</p>
<p><strong>Resumen:</strong> Este ARI estudia las características clave de las ciudades como principales emisores de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y consumidores de energía. Además, hace un repaso de las fuentes y &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34182/ciudades-y-cambio-climatico-retos-oportunidades-y-experiencias/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Lara Lázaro Touza</strong>, investigadora, Real Instituto Elcano (REAL INSTITUTO ELCANO, 21/03/11):</p>
<p><strong>Tema:</strong> Las ciudades emiten entre el 60% y el 80% de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) a nivel mundial, y consumen aproximadamente esos mismos porcentajes de la energía mundial. Además, tienen un gran potencial de mitigación. Estas características hacen que la ciudad sea un espacio clave en la consecución de futuros compromisos climáticos.</p>
<p><strong>Resumen:</strong> Este ARI estudia las características clave de las ciudades como principales emisores de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) y consumidores de energía. Además, hace un repaso de las fuentes y sectores que contribuyen de manera significativa a dicho consumo energético (y emisiones asociadas). Hecho esto, el documento pasa a presentar las principales consecuencias del cambio climático que son de especial relevancia a nivel local, como por ejemplo el Efecto Isla de Calor (<em>Urban Heat Island</em>, UHI en sus siglas en inglés). Una vez analizadas las consecuencias del cambio climático en las ciudades se hará una breve reflexión sobre algunas de las políticas de cambio climático que se están llevando a cabo en distintas ciudades del mundo. El análisis de dichas experiencias ayudará a presentar recomendaciones para la acción en materia de reducción de emisiones de GEI en ciudades que no han desarrollado aún una estrategia de lucha contra el cambio climático, o que tienen previsto revisar la que ya tienen.</p>
<p><strong>Análisis:</strong> Las políticas de cambio climático a nivel local se han desarrollado de manera más o menos global desde la década de los 90 del siglo XX, especialmente en países desarrollados. El conocimiento de las políticas de cambio climático en las ciudades sigue siendo, sin embargo, limitado, por lo que análisis recientes como los de la OECD (2009, 2010) y de autores como Bestill y Bulkeley (2007) y Hallegatte <em>et al</em>. (2008, 2010) son de interés a la hora de afrontar futuras decisiones sobre reducción de GEI y adaptación a las consecuencias del cambio climático. Además, dado el potencial de ahorro energético de las ciudades, cifrado en dos tercios del ahorro energético potencial total (OCDE, 2008), es esencial que se incluya el nivel local en los cálculos nacionales e internacionales de mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. En futuras conferencias de las partes, como en Durban a finales de 2010, el papel de las ciudades podría ayudar a seguir avanzando en la limitación de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de manera decisiva. Asimismo, la adaptación a las consecuencias esperadas del cambio climático se dará a nivel local, por lo que la política climática en las ciudades tendrá que prestar atención no sólo a la reducción de GEI sino también a la adaptación planificada. Dado el <em>gap</em> entre los compromisos existentes y las acciones necesarias para lograr limitar los efectos del cambio climático, este es un área que es importante explorar.</p>
<p><em>Las ciudades y las principales fuentes de GEI</em></p>
<p>Las ciudades se definen como constructos artificiales en los que se sacrifica el entorno natural en favor de la urbe (Camagni, Capello y Nijkamp, 1998) que aglutina un número variable de personas, desde las ciudades de unos miles de habitantes hasta la grandes metrópolis de varios millones. Las ciudades ocupan alrededor del 2% de la superficie terrestre y más del 50% de la población mundial vive actualmente en ellas (Kennedy <em>et al.</em>, 2009). En 2030 se estima que este porcentaje llegará al 60% de la población mundial y para mediados del siglo XXI el 70% de la población mundial y el 86% de la población de los países de la OCDE vivirá en ciudades (OCDE, 2010).</p>
<p>En la Figura 1 se recogen las tendencias en el crecimiento de la población entre 1950 y 2050, usando datos de Naciones Unidas.</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-34183" title="ciudad1" src="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/wp-content/uploads/ciudad1.gif" alt="" width="600" height="419" />Además de albergar en la actualidad a más de la mitad de la población mundial en las ciudades, en ellas se concentra una proporción significativa del crecimiento económico, del potencial innovador, del consumo energético y de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de cada país. En los países de la OCDE, por ejemplo, el 40% del PIB nacional proviene de las zonas con mayor concentración de población y en muchos de estos países una sola región metropolitana produce entre un tercio y la mitad del PIB nacional (por ejemplo, Londres, París, Bruselas, Seúl, Dublín, Oslo y Estocolmo, entre otras). La OCDE estima que entre el 60% y el 80% de la energía consumida y de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero provienen de las ciudades. A medida que los procesos de urbanización se consolidan, el consumo energético y las consiguientes emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero van en aumento. Esta tendencia es especialmente acusada en ciudades de Asia y África, donde además del proceso urbanizador se está experimentando un cambio en el <em>mix</em> energético de las ciudades que están pasando a ser grandes consumidores de combustibles fósiles (OCDE, 2010).</p>
<p>Según Kennedy <em>et al. </em>(2009) los factores que determinan las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de las ciudades incluyen elementos geofísicos como el clima y los recursos naturales a los que tiene acceso la ciudad y elementos técnicos como la generación de energía, el diseño de la ciudad[1] y de sus edificios, el sistema de gestión de residuos y su sistema de transporte. A dichos factores habría que añadir variables socioeconómicas como el nivel de renta y el estilo de vida de los habitantes de la ciudad. Finalmente, la política ambiental y de cambio climático también influye de manera significativa en las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en las ciudades.</p>
<p>En general, las variables que favorecerán menores emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero incluyen: climas más templados en los que se necesita menos calefacción o aire acondicionado, mayor acceso a fuentes energéticas renovables, mayor densidad de las ciudades, la disponibilidad de avances tecnológicos y la existencia de políticas climáticas avanzadas.</p>
<p>A modo de ilustración de las principales fuentes de emisiones de GEI, la Figura 2 compara las emisiones directas de gases de efecto invernadero medidos en toneladas de CO2 equivalente per capita y divididos por sectores de 10 grandes ciudades.</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-34184" title="ciudad2" src="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/wp-content/uploads/ciudad2.gif" alt="" width="600" height="432" />Como se ilustra en la Figura 2, el peso de los sectores más intensivos en emisiones de GEI varía en función de la ciudad analizada, siendo no obstante la generación de electricidad, el transporte terrestre y las calefacciones (junto con los combustibles industriales) los sectores más emisores de GEI en las ciudades analizadas.</p>
<p><em>Consecuencias del cambio climático en las ciudades</em></p>
<p>Los estudios disponibles indican que las consecuencias del cambio climático se harán sentir de manera especialmente severa en algunas de las grandes ciudades del mundo, en especial en las costeras y en países en desarrollo. Los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, como olas de calor o inundaciones, pueden causar en las ciudades que no se adapten a tiempo daños mayores en comparación con entornos rurales. La razón de estos mayores daños esperados es que las ciudades dependen en mayor medida que las zonas no urbanas de las infraestructuras y de los servicios básicos a la ciudadanía, como el transporte público, los servicios sanitarios y la gestión de residuos. Además, tal y como se recoge en Hallegatte <em>et al</em>. (2010), dichas infraestructuras tienden a estar insuficientemente preparadas para resistir acontecimientos meteorológicos extremos. En este sentido, la Agencia Europea del Medio Ambiente nos recordaba en su informe de 2009 que acontecimientos como las inundaciones de ciudades alemanas a principios de la década, la ola de calor que dejó más de 50.000 muertos en Europa en 2003[2] (y que afectó a las ciudades en mayor medida en países como Francia) o la necesidad de suministrar agua por buques a la ciudad de Barcelona en 2008, pueden volverse más frecuentes a causa del cambio climático (EEA, 2009).</p>
<p>Las experiencias de fenómenos meteorológicos extremos junto con las predicciones climáticas disponibles indican la necesidad de planificar una respuesta proactiva que tenga en cuenta tanto el coste de oportunidad de las medidas de acción temprana en un contexto económico adverso como el hecho de que las medidas de adecuación y adaptación a dichos fenómenos meteorológicos extremos tardarán años en materializarse. Así, la regionalización de los modelos climáticos y los análisis de los riesgos, los costes y los beneficios de distintas medidas de adaptación serán de ayuda a la hora de formular políticas eficientes, equitativas y viables a nivel político.</p>
<p>Adicionalmente, el entramado urbano de las ciudades produce el “Efecto Isla de Calor” o <em>Urban Heat Island Effect</em> (UHI). Según la agencia de protección del medio ambiente de EEUU (EPA en sus siglas en ingles) este término hace referencia al fenómeno que tiene lugar en ambientes urbanizados que tiene como consecuencia mayores temperaturas observadas (entre 3,5ºC y 4,5ºC) en comparación con ambientes rurales. Como consecuencia del cambio climático se espera, además, que estas diferencias térmicas entre ambientes urbanos y rurales aumenten hasta 1ºC por década, llegando a alcanzar diferencias de hasta 10ºC en grandes metrópolis (OCDE, 2010).</p>
<p>A modo de ilustración, la Figura 3 refleja el posible efecto del cambio climático en las temperaturas de diversas ciudades europeas a finales del siglo XXI.</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-34185" title="ciudad3" src="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/wp-content/uploads/ciudad3.gif" alt="" width="607" height="548" />Como ocurre en otros ámbitos, las consecuencias esperadas para las ciudades del sur de Europa serán más acusadas, pudiendo afectar, entre otros, al confort térmico de turistas y ciudadanos durante los meses de verano, alterando los patrones y las estaciones en la que se viaje a ciudades como Madrid o Roma. Para España, en la que más del 10% del PIB viene del turismo, las consecuencias podrían ser significativas, aunque el efecto de menor turismo en verano podría verse parcialmente compensado por un aumento del turismo en otras épocas del año.</p>
<p><em>Políticas climáticas en las ciudades</em></p>
<p>Las respuestas de las ciudades ante el cambio climático se han dado tanto de manera individual como de manera concertada a través de redes de ciudades. Ejemplos de estas redes incluyen: la Red Española de Ciudades por el Clima, el Consejo Internacional para las Iniciativas Ambientales Locales (<em>International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives</em>, ICLEI), la Alianza por el Clima (<em>Climate Alliance</em>, con más de 1.000 miembros en 17 ciudades europeas que se han comprometido a reducir a la mitad sus emisiones de GEI en 2030 en relación a 1990) y el <em>C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group</em> (más centrado en el papel de las compras públicas y en la promoción de tecnologías limpias para influir en el mercado), entre otros.</p>
<p>Uno de los elementos que hacen difícil la articulación de una respuesta adecuada a los efectos potenciales del cambio climático es el hecho de que modificar las infraestructuras de las ciudades (carreteras, suministro de agua y planificación del territorio) suponen costes ciertos a corto plazo, plazos de ejecución de planes y obras dilatados y beneficios a largo plazo con cierto grado de incertidumbre. Esta incertidumbre es inherente a las predicciones climáticas a largo plazo, lo cual no implica que la mejor opción sea la inacción. De hecho, las ciudades llevan respondiendo al reto de reducir sus emisiones de GEI y adaptarse a las consecuencias del cambio climático desde finales del siglo pasado.</p>
<p>Otro de los elementos que dificultan el desarrollo de las políticas de cambio climático es el hecho de que las políticas ambientales se han visto tradicionalmente como enemigas de un mayor crecimiento económico, especialmente en tiempos de crisis. Para evaluar esta hipótesis es necesario contar con datos, muchas veces inexistentes, sobre los costes y los beneficios de las acciones de mitigación y de adaptación, además de tener en cuenta los efectos indirectos que dichos costes y beneficios generan. Ejemplos de los beneficios adicionales que pueden suponer las políticas locales contra cambio climático incluyen (<em>ibid.</em>):</p>
<ul>
<li> Mejora de la calidad del aire de nuestras ciudades al establecer políticas que limiten el tráfico por ejemplo.</li>
<li> Mejoras en la salud de los ciudadanos.</li>
<li> Ahorro energético derivado de las medidas de eficiencia energética.</li>
<li> Reducción de la dependencia energética exterior.</li>
<li> Reducción de las probabilidades de derrames de petróleo (al reducir la demanda de combustibles fósiles).</li>
<li> Aumento del atractivo de ciudades menos contaminadas para turistas y ciudadanos.</li>
</ul>
<p>A nivel institucional, son los decisores locales, y en especial los alcaldes y sus departamentos de sostenibilidad, política energética y planificación del territorio, entre otros, los que pueden fomentar de manera decisiva las acciones en los sectores más intensivos en emisiones de GEI de las ciudades. La cooperación con otros agentes sociales como empresas y ciudadanos y la coordinación con otros niveles de toma de decisiones (regional, nacional e internacional) serán además clave en la exitosa consecución de las políticas locales.</p>
<p>Los gobiernos locales pueden influir en las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de las ciudades a través de la limitación de sus propios consumos. Además pueden influir en la provisión de servicios públicos más “verdes”, como por ejemplo a través de la sustitución de la flota de vehículos de transporte público por vehículos menos contaminantes. Los ayuntamientos tienen también a su disposición tanto medidas coercitivas (limitación de la velocidad del tráfico, restricciones de tráfico en ciertas zonas o códigos técnicos de edificación, entre otros) como instrumentos de mercado (tasas ambientales sobre los residuos, por ejemplo). Además, los decisores locales pueden influir en el comportamiento de ciudadanos y empresas a través de campañas de información (en España, por ejemplo, las campañas de separación de residuos para su posterior reciclaje o las campañas de ahorro de agua).</p>
<p>Las políticas de mitigación y de adaptación que se analizarán brevemente a continuación incluyen la planificación territorial y de edificación, el transporte, el uso de recursos naturales, las políticas hídricas y la gestión de residuos. Dichas políticas se suelen instrumentar a través de planes y estrategias en las que las ciudades se comprometen a reducir sus emisiones de GEI. Ejemplos de dichos compromisos son los adquiridos por la ciudad de Nueva York, que se ha comprometido a reducir sus emisiones en un 30% entre 2005 y 2030, y Tokio, cuyo compromiso consiste en una reducción del 25% entre 2000 y 2020, entre otros. En Madrid, por ejemplo, el compromiso existente implica una reducción de las emisiones de GEI del 8% en 2020 en relación a los niveles de 1990, además de reducir en un 20% la demanda de combustibles fósiles para 2020 en relación a los niveles de 2004 (Ayuntamiento de Madrid, 2008).</p>
<p>Con relación a la planificación del territorio, es importante recordar que las zonas multi-funcionales en las que hay servicios, zonas residenciales, oficinas, etc., pueden ayudar a reducir el número de desplazamientos por carretera (uno de los factores más relevantes de las emisiones de GEI en las ciudades). Además, las políticas de fomento de las ciudades más compactas son menos intensivas en términos de emisiones de GEI en media (Kennedy <em>et al</em>., 2009). Como expresión más avanzada del uso de la planificación territorial y de la política ambiental a nivel local han surgido también las llamadas eco-ciudades (Tabernero Duque, 2010) cuyas políticas de uso de recursos y generación de residuos tienden a ser más restrictivas que en sus homólogas no “eco”.</p>
<p>Relacionadas con las políticas de planificación del territorio se encuentran también las políticas y códigos de edificación de las ciudades que, al igual que las anteriores, deberán cumplir el doble objetivo de ayudar en la reducción en las emisiones de GEI y de adecuarse a los impactos esperados del cambio climático. El hecho de que en su mayoría las infraestructuras y los edificios tengan una vida útil de más de 50 años hace que sea especialmente importante tener en cuenta las necesidades de la ciudadanía a largo plazo a la hora de regular y construir edificios tanto industriales como comerciales y residenciales. Así, las acciones básicas en materia de edificaciones incluyen (OCDE, 2010; Ayuntamiento de Madrid, com. Pers.): mejoras en la eficiencia energética derivadas de medidas como el aislamiento térmico del parque residencial existente, la localización adecuada de los edificios para optimizar la luz y la temperatura, la selección de materiales de construcción menos intensivos en CO2, la inclusión de auditorías energéticas durante las obras de construcción y el aprovechamiento de techos y cubiertas para fomentar el uso de energías renovables, entre otros. En edificios públicos es cada vez más común ver medidas de ahorro y eficiencia energética como la sustitución de bombillas tradicionales por bombillas de bajo consumo o la moderación de las temperaturas mínimas y máximas, entre otros. Un ejemplo de este tipo de iniciativas se puede ver en la ciudad china de Shenzhen, cuyas autoridades se han comprometido a reducir en un 50% la energía consumida en edificios de nueva construcción y en un 20% en edificios antiguos.</p>
<p>Las recomendaciones básicas a la hora de regular las emisiones de GEI procedentes del transporte rodado en las ciudades incluyen: mejorar los servicios de transporte público (dotación, infraestructuras y conexiones entre poblaciones o fomentando planes de transporte público para empleados), aumentar la eficiencia de los vehículos en circulación (a través de planes de renovación de las flotas de vehículos particulares, por ejemplo), desincentivar el uso individual del vehículo privado (creando, por ejemplo, carriles de alta ocupación, invirtiendo en carril bici, fomentando el tele-trabajo y empleando una tasa de congestión (<em>congestion charge</em>) en el centro de las ciudades, entre otros).</p>
<p>En lo referente a la gestión de los recursos naturales, es importante destacar que iniciativas como plantar árboles en las calles de las ciudades o la creación de espacios verdes, entre otros, suponen aunar las políticas de mitigación y las de adaptación. Esta alineación de las políticas de mitigación y adaptación se debe a que iniciativas como plantar árboles aumentan el potencial de captura de CO2 de las ciudades y, a su vez, ayudan a limitar futuros aumentos de las temperaturas derivados, por ejemplo, del efecto Isla de Calor. Un ejemplo de este tipo de iniciativas lo proporciona la ciudad coreana de Sejong, en la que la mitad de su superficie se dedicará a la creación de zonas verde, parques y muelles (OECD, 2010).</p>
<p>Las políticas hídricas de las ciudades están relacionadas con la política energética y por ende con las emisiones de GEI. En California, por ejemplo, el 20% del consumo energético se deriva de la provisión, el bombeo, la presurización, el proceso de calentado del agua y usos finales. Las políticas de ahorro y uso eficiente de agua pueden ayudar a reducir las emisiones de GEI. Las principales acciones en relación a la política local de agua y cambio climático incluyen: reducción del consumo de agua mediante campañas de concienciación, reparación de fugas, evitar la contaminación de las aguas por inundaciones e instalación de sistemas de riego por goteo, entre otros. Tanto las señales del mercado vía mayores precios, como la limitación de ciertos usos o las campañas informativas, son instrumentos útiles en la limitación en el uso del agua. A pesar de que hay ciudades que ya incluyen las políticas de adaptación planificada o proactiva a sus planes futuros de gestión de agua, esto no es la norma y ciudades como, por ejemplo, Madrid están siguiendo un proceso de adaptación espontáneo o reactivo a las consecuencias del cambio climático en materia hídrica.</p>
<p>La gestión de residuos es otro de los ámbitos de actuación clave en la minimización de emisiones de GEI de las ciudades. Los residuos urbanos tienden a aumentar con el crecimiento económico, por lo que es importante seguir avanzando en políticas que ayuden a desacoplar el crecimiento económico de la generación de residuos. Las políticas de reducción de residuos –como, por ejemplo, el fomento de los procesos de compostaje de comida, aumentar los impuestos de materiales no reciclables, la reducción de envases y embalajes y la mejora en los procesos de incineración,[3] entre otros– son clave a la hora de reducir las emisiones de GEI de los residuos generados. Un ejemplo de éxito en esta materia lo encontramos en la política de gestión de residuos de la ciudad de San Francisco, que ha logrado reducir los residuos que acaban en los vertederos en un 70% a través de fomentar el reciclaje y el compostaje (OECD, 2008).</p>
<p><em>Recomendaciones</em></p>
<p>Tras el breve análisis de las causas, consecuencias y acciones que se están llevando a cabo en diversas ciudades del mundo en relación a la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático, a continuación se pasan a enumerar algunas de las recomendaciones que podrían ser de utilidad para el desarrollo y mejora de las políticas climáticas de las ciudades.</p>
<p>La literatura disponible dice que no hay, hoy por hoy, un criterio universalmente aceptado para contabilizar las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero de las ciudades. Este criterio común serviría para poder conocer y comparar los esfuerzos, ayudando a mejorar las medidas de mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático.</p>
<p>En general, los modelos climáticos existentes no tienen la definición adecuada para hacer predicciones con certeza en las ciudades. Invertir esfuerzos y recursos en el diseño y adecuación de modelos climáticos a escala de las ciudades podría ayudar a aumentar la información sobre los efectos del cambio climático como guía para el desarrollo de políticas climáticas de largo plazo en las ciudades.</p>
<p>Estudios como los de Kennedy <em>et al.</em> (2009) indican que las políticas de planificación del territorio encaminadas a fomentar ciudades compactas, en las que se minimicen los desplazamientos en vehículos privados, pueden reducir de manera significativa las emisiones de GEI. Estudiar la posibilidad de aumentar la densidad de las ciudades a la vez que se reservan espaciosverdes siguiendo los ejemplos de ciudades pioneras en este ámbito, puede resultar en mejoras en las cifras de GEI y de beneficios asociados expuestos anteriormente.</p>
<p>En materia de recursos hídricos, se ha argumentado que el consumo de agua puede ser muy intensivo en términos de gasto energético. Esta tendencia puede verse exacerbada con el cambio climático. Conocer los patrones de precipitaciones, riesgos de sequías e inundaciones y planificar las acciones necesarias para minimizar el consumo energético a la vez que se asegura el suministro de agua es esencial en ciudades tradicionalmente castigadas por periodos de sequías intensas.</p>
<p>Finalmente, el reto de la adaptación al cambio climático sigue pendiente en un buen número de ciudades. Si bien es cierto que la adaptación espontánea ocurrirá y será especialmente efectiva en zonas más desarrolladas económicamente, hay actuaciones en materia de adaptación que necesitan planificación e inversiones a largo plazo (por ejemplo, la construcción de diques de contención en ciudades como Rotterdam). Incluir la adaptación en las medidas de mitigación puede ayudar a alinear ambas acciones minimizando las posibles consecuencias del cambio climático.</p>
<p><strong>Conclusiones:</strong> Cumplir con el mandato científico de limitar el aumento medio de las temperaturas en relación a la era preindustrial a 2ºC (en un escenario optimista) requerirá aumentar el grado de compromiso de reducción de emisiones de GEI. Dado que las ciudades consumen la mayor parte de la energía, emiten la mayor parte de los GEI de origen antropocéntrico y que, además, las acciones en materia de ahorro y eficiencia energética en el ámbito urbano pueden proporcionar dos terceras partes del ahorro energético potencial, parece claro que es inevitable involucrar de manera cada vez más proactiva a las ciudades en las políticas de mitigación y adaptación.</p>
<p>Dentro de las ciudades, la producción de electricidad, el transporte por carretera y los usos residenciales son los ámbitos en los que se generan la mayor parte de las emisiones de GEI. Para reducir las emisiones y adaptar las ciudades a los efectos del cambio climático se han repasado diversos enfoques y medidas, entre las que destacan la importancia de fomentar ciudades más compactas y multi-funcionales, aumentar en la medida de lo posible y sujeto a criterios de eficiencia el uso de las energías renovables y fomentar el uso del transporte público y de modos alternativos de transporte.</p>
<p>En relación a los retos pendientes, la lista es variada y compleja, pero cabe destacar que es necesario atajar la falta de conocimiento de los efectos del cambio climático a escala sub-nacional. También es necesario desarrollar guías de medición de GEI homogéneas y universalmente aceptadas para las ciudades. Por último, y no menos importante, es esencial empezar a integrar las medidas de adaptación a la planificación de las acciones de mitigación y aumentar la presencia de las ciudades en futuras negociaciones internacionales.</p>
<p><strong>Bibliografía</strong></p>
<p>Ayuntamiento de Madrid (2008), <em>Plan  de Uso</em> <a href="http://www.madrid.es/UnidadWeb/Contenidos/Publicaciones/TemaMedioAmbiente/PlanEnergia/Planenergiasostenible.pdf" target="_blank">Sostenible de la Energía y Prevención del  Cambio Climático de la Cuidad  de Madrid 2008-2012</a>.</p>
<p>Betsill,  M., y H. Bulkeley (2007), “Looking Back and Thinking Ahead: A Decade of Cities  and Climate Change Research”, <em>Local Environment</em>, nº 12, pp. 447-456.</p>
<p>Camagni, R., R. Capello y  P. Nijkamp (1998), “Towards  Sustainable City Policy: An Economy-environment Technology Nexus”, <em>Ecological Economics</em>, nº 24, pp. 103-118.</p>
<p>EEA  (2009), “<a href="http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/quality-of-life-in-Europes-cities-and-towns" target="_blank">Ensuring Quality of Life in Europe’s Cities and Towns</a>”, EEA Report 5/2009, 28 de mayo  de 2009.</p>
<p>Hallegatte, S., F. Henriet y J.  Corfee-Morlot (2008), “The Economics   of Climate Change Impacts and Policy  Benefits at City Scale: A   Conceptual Framework”, <em>OECD</em> <em>Environment  Working Papers</em>, nº 4, OECD Publishing, DOI 10.1787/230232725661.</p>
<p>Hallegatte, S., N. Ranger, O.  Mestre, P. Dumas, J. Corfee-Morlot, C.   Herweijer y R. Muir-Wood (2010),  “Assessing Climate Change Impacts, Sea   Level Rise and Storm Surge Risk in Port  Cities: A Case Study on   Copenhagen”, <em>Climatic Change: Special Issue on  Cities and Climate Change</em>, Springer, <a href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisld/">http://www.epa.gov/heatisld/</a>.</p>
<p>Kennedy,  C. <em>et al.</em> (2009), “Greenhouse Gas  Emissions from Global Cities”, <em>Environmental Science Technology</em>, nº 43, pp. 7297-7302.</p>
<p>OECD (2008), <em>Competitive  Cities and Climate Change</em>, 2nd Annual Meeting of the OECD Roundtable Strategy  for Urban Development,OECD, Milán.</p>
<p>OECD  (2009), <em>Cities, Towns and Renewable  Energy. Yes in My Front Yard</em>, OECD, París.</p>
<p>OECD  (2010), <em>Cities and Climate Change</em>, OECD Publishing, París.</p>
<p>Robine, J.M.,  S.L. Cheung, S. Le Roy et al. (2008),  “Death Toll Exceeded 70,000 in Europe during  the Summer of 2003”, <em>C.R. Biologies</em>,  nº 331, febrero, pp. 171-178.</p>
<p>Tabernero Duque, F.M. (2010), “<a href="http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano/contenido?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/elcano/elcano_es/especiales/especial+cambio+climatico/publicaciones+rie/ari+y+dt/ari70-2010" target="_blank">La  arquitectura bioclimática y el cambio climático”</a>, ARI  nº 70/2010, Real Instituto Elcano.</p>
<p><strong>Notas:</strong></p>
<p>[1] Más o menos densa en términos de habitantes por km2.</p>
<p>[2] 70.000 según Robine et al. (2008).</p>
<p>[3] En materia de eficiencia energética, así como en la seguridad y minimización de tóxicos, como dioxinas y furanos.</p>
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		<title>Japan&#8217;s horror reveals how thin is the edge we live on</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34140/japans-horror-reveals-how-thin-is-the-edge-we-live-on/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34140/japans-horror-reveals-how-thin-is-the-edge-we-live-on/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Mar 2011 22:56:59 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=34140</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Bill McKibben</strong>, an author and environmentalist. His latest book is <em>Eaarth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet</em> (THE GUARDIAN, 18/03/11):</p>
<p>It&#8217;s scary to watch <a title="Guardian: Japan tsunami: Dramatic amateur footage - video" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2011/mar/14/japan-tsunami-amateur-footage-video?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3486">the video from Japan</a>,  and not just because of the frightening explosions at the Fukushima  plant or the unstoppable surge of tsunami-wash through the streets. It&#8217;s  almost as unnerving to see <a title="Guardian:  Miyagi tsunami aftermath (video)" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2011/mar/14/myagi-tsunami-aftermath-video?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3486">the aftermath</a> – the square miles of rubble, with boats piled on cars; the completely  bare supermarket shelves. Because  the one thing we&#8217;ve never really  imagined is going to the supermarket and finding it empty.</p>
<p>What  the events reveal is &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34140/japans-horror-reveals-how-thin-is-the-edge-we-live-on/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Bill McKibben</strong>, an author and environmentalist. His latest book is <em>Eaarth: Making a Life on a Tough New Planet</em> (THE GUARDIAN, 18/03/11):</p>
<p>It&#8217;s scary to watch <a title="Guardian: Japan tsunami: Dramatic amateur footage - video" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2011/mar/14/japan-tsunami-amateur-footage-video?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3486">the video from Japan</a>,  and not just because of the frightening explosions at the Fukushima  plant or the unstoppable surge of tsunami-wash through the streets. It&#8217;s  almost as unnerving to see <a title="Guardian:  Miyagi tsunami aftermath (video)" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2011/mar/14/myagi-tsunami-aftermath-video?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3486">the aftermath</a> – the square miles of rubble, with boats piled on cars; the completely  bare supermarket shelves. Because  the one thing we&#8217;ve never really  imagined is going to the supermarket and finding it empty.</p>
<p>What  the events reveal is the thinness of the margin on which modernity  lives. There&#8217;s not a country in the world more modern and civilised than  Japan; its building codes and engineering prowess kept its great  buildings from collapsing when the much milder quake in Haiti last year  flattened everything. But clearly it&#8217;s not enough. That thin edge on  which we live, and which at most moments we barely notice, provided  nowhere near enough buffer against the power of the natural world.</p>
<p>We&#8217;re  steadily narrowing the margin. Global warming didn&#8217;t cause the  earthquake and tsunami that devastated the Miyagi coast, but global  warming daily is shrinking the leeway on which civilisation everywhere  depends. Consider: sea levels have begun to rise. We&#8217;re seeing record  temperatures that depress harvests – the amount of grain per capita on  the planet has been falling for years. Because warm air holds more water  vapour than cold, the chance of severe flooding keeps going up and in  the last year countries from Pakistan to Australia have recently ended  up on the wrong side of those odds.</p>
<p>Those changes steadily eat  away at that safety margin. With less food stored in our warehouses,  each harvest becomes critical. With each massive flood, we have to spend  more money rebuilding what was there before: there are still as many as  4 million homeless from Pakistan&#8217;s floods, which means &#8220;development&#8221;  has given way to &#8220;getting a tarp over your head&#8221;. Even rich countries  face this trouble: Australia cut much of its budget for renewable energy  to help pay the recovery bill for soggy Queensland. Warmer temperatures  are helping dengue fever spread; treating one case can use up the  annual health budget for a dozen people in some Asian nation, meaning  that much less for immunisations or nutrition. Just the increasing cost  of insurance can be a big drag on economies: a study by Harvard and  Swiss Re found that even in rich nations such as the US, larger and more  frequent storms could &#8220;overwhelm adaptive capacities&#8221;, rendering &#8220;large  areas and sectors uninsurable&#8221;. The bottom line was that, &#8220;in effect,  parts of developed countries would experience developing nation  conditions for prolonged periods&#8221;.</p>
<p>There have always been natural  disasters, and there always will be. For 10,000 years the planet has  been by and large benign; you could tell where the safe margin for  civilisation was because that&#8217;s, by definition, where civilisation was  built. But if the sea level rises a metre, that margin shrinks  considerably: on a beach that slopes in at 1 degree, the sea is now  nearly 90 metres nearer. And it&#8217;s not just a literal shrinkage – the  insecurity that comes with smaller food stocks or more frequent floods  also takes a psychological toll: the world seems more cramped because it  <em>is</em> more cramped.</p>
<p>We can try to deal with this in two  ways. One is to attempt to widen it with more technology. If the Earth&#8217;s  temperature is rising, maybe we could &#8220;geoengineer&#8221; the planet, tossing  sulphur into the atmosphere in an effort to block incoming sunlight.  It&#8217;s theoretically possible. But researchers warn it could do more harm  than good, and maybe this isn&#8217;t the week to trust the grandest promises  of engineers, not when they&#8217;ve all but lost control of the highest  technology we&#8217;ve ever built, there on the bluff at Fukushima. The other  possibility is to try to build down a little: to focus on resilience, on  safety. And to do that – here&#8217;s the controversial part – instead of  focusing on growth. We might decide that the human enterprise (at least  in the west) has got big enough, that our appetites need not to grow,  but to shrink a little, in order to provide us more margin. What would  that mean? Buses and bikes and trains, not SUVs. Local food, with more  people on the farm so that muscles replace some of the oil. Having  learned that banks are &#8220;too big to fail&#8221;, we might guess that our food  and energy systems fall into that same category.</p>
<p>Imagine, for  instance, a nation that got most of its power from rooftop solar panels  knitted together in a vast distributed grid. It would take investment to  get there – we&#8217;d have to divert money from other tasks, slowing some  kinds of growth, because solar power is currently more expensive than  coal power. We might not have constant access to unlimited power at  every second of every day. In the end, though, you&#8217;d have not only less  carbon in the atmosphere, but also a country far less failure-prone. The  solar panels on my roof could break tonight – and I&#8217;d have a problem if  they did – but it wouldn&#8217;t ramify into rolling blackouts across the  continent (and no one would need to stand in my driveway with a Geiger  counter). Such changes wouldn&#8217;t make the world safe: climatologists  promise us we&#8217;ve already put enough carbon out there to raise our  planet&#8217;s temperature two degrees in the decades to come, which will make  for a miserably difficult century. But they also promise that if we  don&#8217;t stop burning coal and oil, that number will double, and miserable  will become impossible.</p>
<p>With Japan&#8217;s horror still unfolding,  there&#8217;s nothing to do for the moment except watch, pray, and try to find  some small ways to help people caught up in forces beyond their  control. But the lesson we should learn, perhaps, is that it&#8217;s time to  back off a little. Suddenly squat and plain words – &#8220;durable&#8221;, &#8220;stable&#8221;,  &#8220;robust&#8221; – sound sweeter to the ear.</p>
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		<title>¿Por qué vivimos cerca del peligro?</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34083/por-que-vivimos-cerca-del-peligro/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34083/por-que-vivimos-cerca-del-peligro/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 16 Mar 2011 22:16:57 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Desastres naturales]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=34083</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Ramon Folch</strong>, socioecólogo y director general de ERF (EL PERIÓDICO, 16/03/11):</p>
<p>Alfred Lothar Wegener, geofísico y meteorólogo alemán, murió  congelado durante una expedición científica a Groenlandia en 1930,  respetado por unos y denostado por otros. Persona de amplios intereses,  había hallado indicios geográficos, geológicos, paleontológicos y  paleoclimáticos de un fenómeno sorprendente: los continentes se  separaban unos de otros como si navegasen por los océanos. En 1912 había  formulado la <em>teoría de la deriva continental,</em> según la que los  distintos continentes actuales derivan de una única masa, que llamó  Pangea, fracturada en un remoto momento dado. Por eso encajan &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/34083/por-que-vivimos-cerca-del-peligro/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Ramon Folch</strong>, socioecólogo y director general de ERF (EL PERIÓDICO, 16/03/11):</p>
<p>Alfred Lothar Wegener, geofísico y meteorólogo alemán, murió  congelado durante una expedición científica a Groenlandia en 1930,  respetado por unos y denostado por otros. Persona de amplios intereses,  había hallado indicios geográficos, geológicos, paleontológicos y  paleoclimáticos de un fenómeno sorprendente: los continentes se  separaban unos de otros como si navegasen por los océanos. En 1912 había  formulado la <em>teoría de la deriva continental,</em> según la que los  distintos continentes actuales derivan de una única masa, que llamó  Pangea, fracturada en un remoto momento dado. Por eso encajan entre sí  como las piezas de un rompecabezas (recorten un mapamundi y  compruébenlo). Buena parte de la comunidad científica encontró  descabellada esa teoría.</p>
<p>Medio siglo más tarde, en los años 60  del siglo XX, los descubrimientos sectoriales de varios geólogos,  geofísicos y sismólogos se acoplaron en la nueva y revolucionaria <em>teoría de la tectónica de placas, </em>según  la que la capa más superficial de la Tierra, la litosfera, está formada  por un conjunto de piezas o placas que se empujan entre sí mientras se  deslizan sobre otra capa inferior más estable, llamada astenosfera, como  lo haría una alfombra sobre el suelo en el que se apoya. La acumulación  de evidencias ha convertido la teoría de placas en un hecho  científicamente indiscutible, avalador de las ideas de Wegener. Las  placas van ajustándose entre ellas a codazos, en tanto que los  continentes van separándose a una velocidad de 2,5 centímetros cada año.</p>
<p>La  Tierra solo tarda 24 horas en dar un giro completo sobre sí misma. Como  consecuencia, tenemos una clara percepción sobre el día y la noche,  aunque durante el día nada haga prever que acabará oscureciendo. De  igual modo, percibimos claramente los cambios estacionales, porque se  suceden a lo largo de tan solo un año. Pero los ciclos o cambios de  cadencia multisecular no nos resultan fácilmente perceptibles. De ahí  que no percibamos los movimientos de las placas, ni nos percatemos del  alejamiento de los continentes, de manera que nos sorprenden los  terremotos y las erupciones volcánicas. No son más que los esperables  chirridos y temblores subsiguientes al rozamiento entre las placas.</p>
<p>La  placa del Pacífico y otras menores chocan con las placas  norteamericana, filipina y australiana precisamente a lo largo de la  costa de América, de Japón, de las Filipinas y de Nueva Zelanda. Es el  llamado cinturón de fuego del Pacífico, escenario de constantes  terremotos y erupciones (el 75% de los volcanes activos del planeta y el  90% de los terremotos). ¿Por qué se concentra allí tanta población?  ¿Por qué tantos humanos viven en semejantes lugares tan peligrosos?</p>
<p>Los  humanos buscamos las interfaces porque son sede de diversidad y de  oportunidades de todo tipo. Ninguna es tan seductora como la litoral, y  por eso la población tiende a ubicarse a orillas del mar. Estar cerca de  los mares por donde durante siglos se ha viajado con mayor facilidad  que a través de los continentes ha sido, y sigue siendo, una ventaja  comercial, y por ende económica, de primer orden. La pega es que los  límites de la placa del Pacífico coinciden con las líneas de costa. La  placa africana y la suramericana, en cambio, chocan en pleno océano  Atlántico, en una de las llamadas dorsales oceánicas; a través del  océano Índico hay otra. Ningún problema en tales casos, pues. Pero el  cinturón de fuego del Pacífico es letal.</p>
<p>No es que japoneses,  indonesios, chilenos y californianos busquen el peligro. Es que su  litoral es así. No pueden ir a ninguna otra parte. Por eso están  fatalmente expuestos a erupciones, terremotos y tsunamis. El caso de  Japón es extremo. Su costa suroriental coincide con el contacto de la  placa filipina y la placa euroasiática, en tanto que su costa  nororiental se halla a escasos kilómetros del contacto submarino entre  la placa pacífica y la norteamericana, justamente la interfaz que  originó el devastador terremoto del pasado viernes, con su subsiguiente  tsunami, más devastador todavía.</p>
<p>Puede también resultar  desconcertante la querencia de muchas comunidades de instalarse en los  faldeos volcánicos. Sorprende menos cuando se constata la elevada  fertilidad de la mayoría de los andosoles, o sea, de los suelos  originados en épocas pretéritas a partir de materiales volcánicos. Los  andosoles (del japonés <em>ando</em>, que significa negro, el color de  aquellas tierras) son ricos en fósforo y otros nutrientes usualmente  escasos. Los campesinos encuentran fertilidad al pie de los volcanes y  por eso se han instalado secularmente ahí. Otra fatal coincidencia.</p>
<p>La  fertilidad de los andosoles y los horizontes pesqueros y comerciales de  las orillas marinas han concentrado población a pie de volcán y a lo  largo de todo el litoral del Pacífico, lugares prósperos, aunque  peligrosos. En menor medida, ha ocurrido lo propio en las orillas  meridionales del Mediterráneo, donde coinciden la placa africana y la  eurosiberiana: de ahí los frecuentes terremotos de Andalucía, el  mediodía de Italia o Turquía, por ejemplo. Por la vida se pierde la  vida, reza el dicho. Vivir mata.</p>
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		<title>A climate-change activist prepares for the worst</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33751/a-climate-change-activist-prepares-for-the-worst/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33751/a-climate-change-activist-prepares-for-the-worst/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sun, 27 Feb 2011 11:53:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>José Moliné Escalona</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=33751</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mike Tidwell</strong>, executive director of the Chesapeake Climate Action Network. His most recent Outlook essay was <em>To really save the planet, stop going green</em> (THE WASHINGTON POST, 27/02/11):</p>
<p>Ten years ago, I put solar panels on my roof and began eating locally  grown food. I bought an energy-efficient refrigerator that uses the  power equivalent of a single light bulb. I started heating my home with a  stove that burns organically fertilized corn kernels. I even restored a  gas-free lawn mower for manual yardwork.</p>
<p>As a longtime environmental activist, I was deeply alarmed by new studies on global warming, &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33751/a-climate-change-activist-prepares-for-the-worst/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>By <strong>Mike Tidwell</strong>, executive director of the Chesapeake Climate Action Network. His most recent Outlook essay was <em>To really save the planet, stop going green</em> (THE WASHINGTON POST, 27/02/11):</p>
<p>Ten years ago, I put solar panels on my roof and began eating locally  grown food. I bought an energy-efficient refrigerator that uses the  power equivalent of a single light bulb. I started heating my home with a  stove that burns organically fertilized corn kernels. I even restored a  gas-free lawn mower for manual yardwork.</p>
<p>As a longtime environmental activist, I was deeply alarmed by new studies on global warming, so I went all out. I did my part.</p>
<p>Now I&#8217;m changing my life again. Today, underneath the solar panels,  there&#8217;s a new set of deadbolt locks on all my doors. There&#8217;s a new Honda  GX390 portable power generator in my garage, ready to provide backup  electricity. And last week I bought a starter kit to raise tomatoes and  lettuce behind barred basement windows.</p>
<p>I&#8217;m not a survivalist or an &#8220;end times&#8221; enthusiast. When it comes to climate change, I&#8217;m just a realist.</p>
<p>I haven&#8217;t given up the cause. I still work overtime to promote clean  energy, and I take solace when top climate scientists say we can still  avoid the worst effects of global warming if we move quickly. It&#8217;s just  that, well, we&#8217;re running out of time.</p>
<p>The proof is everywhere &#8211; outside my front door, in my neighborhood, on  the news. After a decade of failure to address climate change at the  national and international levels, our weather has gone haywire. In the  Washington region alone, in barely a year, we&#8217;ve annihilated all records  for <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/10/AR2010021004032.html">snow accumulation</a>, we&#8217;ve seen appalling power outages associated with year-round thunderstorms, and we&#8217;ve experienced the <a href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/capitalweathergang/2010/09/summer_2010_hottest_on_record.html">hottest summer</a> in the 140 years we&#8217;ve been measuring. Winston Churchill&#8217;s oft-quoted  warning on the eve of World War II now applies directly: &#8220;The era of  procrastination, of half-measures, of soothing and baffling expedients,  of delays, is coming to its close. In its place we are entering a period  of consequences.&#8221;</p>
<p>Those consequences explain the generator in my garage and why I&#8217;m reinforcing my basement windows to protect emergency supplies.</p>
<p>This may seem like a stunt, or a sign that this frustrated  environmentalist has finally lost it. But I&#8217;m not crazy. Just wait. The  mega-storms and social disruptions on the horizon will be the best proof  of that.</p>
<p>It wasn&#8217;t the <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/13/AR2010081302642.html">wildfires that blackened much of Russia</a> last summer that led me to buy my portable generator, nor the <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/14/AR2010081400427.html">unspeakable rains in Pakistan</a> that inundated nearly a quarter of that country. It was the one-two  punch of thunderstorms that blew through the D.C. area on July 25 and  Aug. 12 of last year. <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/07/25/AR2010072501870.html">The first storm</a>, with wind gusts of 90 mph, knocked out power to 400,000 people and generated a wave of lightning that, by a freak tragedy, <a href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/local-breaking-news/dc/sundays-storm-claims-fourth-vi.html">killed my friend Carl Henn</a> at a community picnic in Rockville.</p>
<p><a href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/local-breaking-news/dc/storms-knocks-out-power-downs.html">The second storm</a> hit while I was in the parking lot of a TV station in Northwest  Washington, about to be interviewed about Arctic ice melt. Suddenly,  darkness overcame us, and it became midnight at 8 a.m. The street lamps  flickered on. Cars turned on their headlights. And I saw the largest,  darkest, windiest thunderstorm I&#8217;d ever seen, approaching from the west.  I whipped out my cellphone and called my wife in Takoma Park. &#8220;Go to  the basement now!&#8221; I said. Inside the TV studio, I watched the anchors  switch to a live report about apartment dwellers trapped by a massive  fallen oak as the first of more than 100,000 homes began to lose power.  Houses across the area were ripped open by wind and crashing tree  trunks.</p>
<p>Throughout 2010, my neighborhood lost power more times than I can  remember. This included blackouts during the &#8220;Snowmageddon&#8221; storms, of  course, when Washington traded in sidewalks for white trenches and roads  for deep canyons. And yes, <a href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/capitalweathergang/2011/01/snowstorm_breezes_through_nyc.html">major snowfall events</a> are increasing in the eastern United States even as the planet warms,  according to data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric  Administration.</p>
<p>It makes sense, too. We&#8217;re not setting records for average low  temperatures, after all. Not even close. We&#8217;re setting records for  precipitation intensity across a huge swath of America, in summer and in  winter. A warmer atmosphere evaporates more water from oceans and  lakes. And what goes up must come down. Last year was <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/12/AR2011011206299.html">the wettest year on record</a> worldwide, NOAA announced last month. That&#8217;s what&#8217;s driving the snow extremes &#8211; while the mercury rises.</p>
<p>After the August storm, I made the financially painful decision to buy  the Honda generator. My solar panels, by themselves, can&#8217;t power my  home. I spent $1,000 on the generator, money that would have gone into  my 13-year-old son&#8217;s college fund. I&#8217;ve expanded my definition of how  best to plan for his future.</p>
<p>On the security side, it was the <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602041.html">global food riots</a> of 2008 and 2010 that led me to replace the 50-year-old locks on all my  doors last fall. I&#8217;m not normally the paranoid type, but when extreme  weather alternately baked and flooded wheat fields in Australia and  Russia, helping to jack up grain prices more than 40 percent worldwide  and leading hungry people to protest from Mexico to Mozambique to  Serbia, I took notice. After all, the many climate effects we&#8217;re already  seeing &#8211; massive wildfires, bigger hurricanes, astonishing Arctic ice  melt &#8211; all result from just 1.2 degrees of planetary warming since 1900.  Now scientists at the U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  say the planet could warm another five degrees by the end of this  century.</p>
<p>If that happens, Iowa is done for. Corn and wheat will wither and die on  a scale never before seen. That&#8217;s because heat-triggered mega-droughts  will intensify across much of America&#8217;s &#8220;continental interior&#8221; regions,  scientists say, as flooding increases elsewhere. Iowa and much of the  Heartland will resemble a scrub desert.</p>
<p>How will we feed ourselves adequately if our breadbasket is a desert?  Answer: We won&#8217;t, and there will be social unrest as a result. How much  is anyone&#8217;s guess, but people don&#8217;t sit still when food gets scarce.  Indeed, when the options are extreme hunger or pillaging the neighboring  village, history tends to favor pillaging.</p>
<p>So I even took my first-ever lesson in firearms use last December, an  introduction to skeet shooting. I told myself it was in part for sport,  but I did it mostly to test various types of shotguns for eventual  purchase. I&#8217;m fundamentally a pacifist, and I&#8217;m not planning to join the  Earth Liberation Front or some such militia. Eco-crazies who sabotage  Hummers and burn suburban-sprawl homes are just that: crazy. I coach  Little League and go to church on Sundays and contribute to a 401(k).  I&#8217;m normal. But wouldn&#8217;t even a level-headed person want to be ready to  defend his family if climate chaos goes to the max?</p>
<p>My wife and son, meanwhile, have obviously noticed the changes I&#8217;m  making around the house. My son, when not focused on his iPod or  skateboard, thinks the Honda generator is cool and wants to be the one  to yank the pull-cord starter during the next storm. And my wife, God  bless her, accepts the truth about what&#8217;s happening to our planet. She  knows we have to prepare.</p>
<p>My actions may seem alarmist to just about everyone else, I realize. And  if you think so, I can&#8217;t really blame you. I&#8217;d be confused about  climate change, too, if I got most of my information from the  half-asleep news media, much less the committed disinformers at Fox News  and the Heritage Foundation. Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli&#8217;s  witch hunt <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/25/AR2011022503176_pf.html">targeting a climate researcher</a> at the University of Virginia? The <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/14/AR2010041404001.html">&#8220;climate-gate&#8221; e-mail flap</a> in Britain, which doubters said proved scientific malpractice? These  scandals are trivial, irrelevant and depressing beyond measure. They  delay collective action to solve the problem &#8211; and they hasten my desire  to prepare for the worst.</p>
<p>But here&#8217;s a question for Cuccinelli and other skeptics: Why would  private insurance companies lie about climate change? Already, Allstate  has stopped selling new homeowners&#8217; policies in coastal Virginia and  Maryland because the warming Atlantic Ocean is bringing larger  hurricanes to the region. And Munich Re, one of the largest insurance  companies in the world and <a href="http://www.munichre.com/corporate-responsibility/en/commitment/environment/climate_protection/default.aspx">a leader in drawing attention to the role of carbon emmissions in driving global warming</a>, announced in January that weather-related disasters soared in 2010, providing <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/28/AR2011012803029.html?nav=hcmoduletmv">traffic disaster</a>, when staggering masses of Washingtonians were stuck on flash-frozen roads for hours and hours and hours? <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2011/02/20/ST2011022002912.html?sid=ST2011022002912">Wildfires in February</a> shutting down highways? Never seen any of those before.</p>
<p>Anecdotal, you might say &#8211; so let me predict a few more anecdotes. Our  trees are going to keep falling in ways we&#8217;ve never seen before. Our  streets are going to flood. Our neighborhood bridges will wash out. Our  roofs will sag from freak snowstorms and bake from unimaginable heat.  And our power will keep going out, no matter how many &#8220;service  improvements&#8221; Pepco makes. We&#8217;ve waited too long to avoid all this.</p>
<p>That I already understand it just means I&#8217;ve probably gotten a better  price for my backyard generator than you will once the rush starts.</p>
<p>Sure, sometimes I wonder if doing all this sends the wrong message &#8211; if  talk of barred windows and home generators undermines the message of  positive social action needed to combat climate change. But if we&#8217;re  honest, we have to admit that we&#8217;ve already lost a significant part of  the battle. I only hope that this realization can shock and motivate us  to push harder for wind farms, electric cars or other solutions that are  still possible.</p>
<p>In <a href="http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/19/AR2010041903186.html">his new book</a>, <a href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0312541198?ie=UTF8&amp;tag=washpost-opinions-20&amp;linkCode=xm2&amp;camp=1789&amp;creativeASIN=0312541198">&#8220;Eaarth,&#8221;</a> the great nature writer Bill McKibben purposely misspells the name of  our planet because that old planet no longer exists; the once-dependable  seasons and crop-nourishing rains that gave rise to human civilization  are gone. McKibben worries about security, about &#8220;fighting other adult  males over the fall harvest,&#8221; as he puts it, even as he emphasizes the  plausible goal of creating locally self-sufficient economies that can  help us survive climate change. Life will be more difficult in this new  world, McKibben admits. But life has been difficult for humans for most  of our history, and somehow our ancestors pushed on.</p>
<p>So that&#8217;s what I&#8217;m doing. I&#8217;m pushing on. I&#8217;m adjusting. Ten years ago, I  put solar panels on my roof as an act of love for the planet. Now I&#8217;m  making new changes, focused on my immediate loved ones. The era of  consequences, at every conceivable level, has entered our world.</p>
<p>Ready or not.</p>
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		<title>Cambio climático y crecimiento</title>
		<link>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33674/cambio-climatico-y-crecimiento/</link>
		<comments>http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33674/cambio-climatico-y-crecimiento/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 22 Feb 2011 22:18:15 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Miguel</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Naturaleza]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cambio climático]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Energía]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/?p=33674</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Mariano Marzo Carpio</strong>, catedrático de Recursos Energéticos en la Facultad de Geología de la Universidad de Barcelona (EL PAÍS, 22/02/11):</p>
<p>Sabemos que para resolver un problema el primer paso es formularlo  correctamente. Pero no siempre actuamos así. El caso de cómo combatir el  actual proceso de cambio climático global, con toda probabilidad  forzado por la actividad humana, es paradigmático al respecto. Sin  ningún tipo de justificación, se ha comunicado un mensaje excesivamente  optimista que ha suscitado grandes expectativas de éxitos fáciles e  inmediatos. Y en este contexto de euforia desmesurada, cualquier  contratiempo, como lo sucedido en las cumbres &#8230; <a href="http://www.almendron.com/tribuna/33674/cambio-climatico-y-crecimiento/" class="read_more">Seguir leyendo</a></p>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Por <strong>Mariano Marzo Carpio</strong>, catedrático de Recursos Energéticos en la Facultad de Geología de la Universidad de Barcelona (EL PAÍS, 22/02/11):</p>
<p>Sabemos que para resolver un problema el primer paso es formularlo  correctamente. Pero no siempre actuamos así. El caso de cómo combatir el  actual proceso de cambio climático global, con toda probabilidad  forzado por la actividad humana, es paradigmático al respecto. Sin  ningún tipo de justificación, se ha comunicado un mensaje excesivamente  optimista que ha suscitado grandes expectativas de éxitos fáciles e  inmediatos. Y en este contexto de euforia desmesurada, cualquier  contratiempo, como lo sucedido en las cumbres de Cope-nhague y Cancún,  alimenta la frustración y la desmotivación. Por ello, en vez de seguir  transmitiendo consignas, quizás lo más apropiado en estos momentos sea  propiciar una reflexión realista sobre la naturaleza, alcance y  ramificaciones del complejo problema que pretendemos solucionar.</p>
<p>La Identidad de Kaya, formulada por el economista energético japonés  Yoichi Kaya, juega un papel central en los estudios del Panel  Intergubernamental de Cambio Climático a propósito de los escenarios  futuros de emisiones de gases contaminantes a la atmósfera. La identidad  muestra que el CO2 emitido por la actividad humana depende del producto  de cuatro variables, consideradas a escala global: <em>1)</em> la población, <em>2)</em> el producto interior bruto (PIB) per cápita, <em>3)</em> la energía utilizada por unidad de PIB (o intensidad energética), y <em>4)</em> las emisiones de CO2 emitidas por unidad de energía consumida (o intensidad de carbono del <em>mix</em> energético).</p>
<p>Para  que el resultado final de una multiplicación de cuatro factores sea  cero, basta con que uno de ellos lo sea. Pero, hoy por hoy, este  supuesto constituye un sueño lejano. Lo que sí está en nuestra mano es  tratar de reducir las emisiones de CO2. Ahora bien, para lograr este  objetivo no podemos obviar dos hechos. El primero es que las  proyecciones de Naciones Unidas sugieren que, aunque en la actualidad  estamos ya asistiendo a un descenso de las tasas de fertilidad, la  población mundial seguirá creciendo en los próximos 50 años, pasando de  cerca de 6.900 millones de personas a un máximo de 9.500 millones, para  después estabilizarse en respuesta a una mejora generalizada de las  condiciones de vida. El segundo, es que el vigente paradigma  socioeconómico asume como un dogma indiscutible que el PIB mundial per  cápita puede y debe seguir creciendo indefinidamente.</p>
<p>Los dos  condicionantes comentados han llevado a la comunidad internacional a  concluir que la lucha contra el cambio climático debe centrarse en la  segunda parte de la ecuación de Kaya, tratando de rebajar la intensidad  energética y la de carbono. En el caso de la primera, se busca mejorar  la eficiencia (es decir, hacer más, o lo mismo, con menos) tanto desde  el punto de vista de la oferta como del de la demanda, mientras que en  el caso de la intensidad de carbono se persigue avanzar hacia la  de-carbonización del <em>mix</em> energético, promoviendo el despliegue de  fuentes de energía limpias en CO2 (renovables y nuclear).  Paralelamente, de forma complementaria a las actuaciones citadas, se  pretende rebajar la cantidad de CO2 antropogénico mediante su secuestro,  ya sea por medios artificiales o naturales (por ejemplo, inyectándolo y  almacenándolo en el subsuelo o evitando la deforestación).</p>
<p>Esta  estrategia para reducir las emisiones de CO2 da por sentado que la  innovación tecnológica en el sector energético será capaz por sí sola de  compensar los efectos derivados del crecimiento demográfico y económico  previstos en el futuro. Ahora bien, las proyecciones en el horizonte de  2035 contenidas en un reciente informe del Gobierno de Estados Unidos <em>(International Energy Outlook 2010)</em> no son precisamente optimistas al respecto. Según esta fuente, en los  próximos 25 años, el mundo podría reducir su intensidad energética a  algo menos de la mitad y disminuir ligeramente la intensidad de carbono  respecto a los valores de 2007. Sin embargo, estas mejoras se verían  ampliamente contrarrestadas por el crecimiento del PIB per cápita  (cercano al 100%) y por el aumento de la demografía (próximo al 30%), de  forma que, en conjunto, la multiplicación de los cuatro factores de  Kaya arroja el resultado de que en 2035 las emisiones globales de CO2 se  habrán incrementado en algo más del 40% respecto a las de 2007.</p>
<p>Esta  conclusión puede resultar sorprendente, en la medida que de ella parece  desprenderse que las actuales políticas de reforma del modelo  energético no serán suficientes para reducir sustancialmente la  inyección antropogénica de CO2 a la atmósfera. O dicho de otra manera,  que en ausencia de una verdadera revolución energética, todavía por  concretar, se hace necesario cuestionar el actual paradigma de  crecimiento económico y demográfico, si es que de verdad pretendemos  rebajar las emisiones citadas. Una verdad, tan incómoda como la  predicada por el exvicepresidente de Estados Unidos Al Gore a propósito  de la aceptación de la realidad del cambio climático.</p>
<p>Nos guste o  no, todo apunta a que esta es la verdadera raíz del problema. A la luz  de la identidad de Kaya, el análisis de la historia del consumo  energético, así como del crecimiento económico y demográfico de la  humanidad en los últimos 100 años, nos indica que el cambio climático  es, en buena parte, consecuencia de un desarrollo económico y  demográfico sin precedentes, posibilitado por el uso masivo de los  combustibles fósiles (carbón, petróleo y gas). Afirmar, como a menudo se  hace, que el cambio climático es tan solo el resultado del uso masivo  de dichos combustibles es una verdad a medias. Equivale a culpar a la  bala, o la pistola que la dispara, de un asesinato, sin analizar quién  aprieta el gatillo.</p>
<p>Ciertamente, el CO2 que (junto a otros gases  de efecto invernadero) provoca el actual desequilibrio climático  proviene en su mayor parte de la quema de combustibles fósiles, pero no  deberíamos olvidar que el uso masivo de estos ha sido requerido por un  paradigma socioeconómico basado en el crecimiento global, continuo e  ilimitado. Hoy en día, los combustibles fósiles representan alrededor  del 80% del <em>mix</em> de energía primaria mundial y sin ellos el  sistema colapsaría. Pero aún hay más: sin carbón, petróleo y gas, el  consumo energético mundial no podría haberse multiplicado por un factor  cercano a cinco durante el periodo 1950-2000, posibilitando que durante  el mismo periodo el PIB mundial se multiplicara por siete y la población  mundial por algo más de dos. Desgraciadamente, el precio a pagar ha  sido que las emisiones de CO2 se han multiplicado por casi cinco durante  los 50 años considerados.</p>
<p>El principal problema subyacente en las  cumbres de Copenhague y Cancún a la hora de alcanzar un acuerdo global  que reemplace a Kioto, es que el crecimiento exponencial vivido en la  segunda mitad del siglo XX se ha repartido de manera muy desigual por el  planeta. El desarrollo económico ha beneficiado al 20% de la población  mundial que reside en los países industrializados, de forma que estos  países acaparaban en el año 2000 cerca del 80% del PIB mundial, mientras  que el resto de los habitantes del planeta apenas habían incrementado  su consumo energético y PIB per cápita. En consecuencia, según datos de  la Agencia Internacional de la Energía, estos últimos tan solo son  responsables del 42% de las emisiones globales de CO2 (relacionadas con  la energía) acumuladas desde 1890 hasta la fecha. Otro dato: en 2007 las  emisiones per cápita de las naciones industrializadas cuadriplicaban en  promedio a la del resto de países del mundo; las cifras de 19, 7,7 y  4,6 toneladas por año y habitante emitidas por los Estados Unidos,  España y China, respectivamente, hablan por sí solas.</p>
<p>Realmente,  resulta fácil comprender por qué los países no industrializados,  liderados por las grandes demografías y potencias emergentes, van a  seguir exigiendo cuentas del pasado, sin comprometer ni un ápice su  futuro. Algo que en el caso de China e India pasa inexorablemente por el  uso de sus enormes reservas de carbón, el combustible más sucio, pero  también el más barato.</p>
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