Física

Decades later, string theory continues its march toward Einstein’s dream

Forty years ago this month, the physics community was electrified by a remarkable paper that hinted at the realization of Albert Einstein’s long-held dream: a unified theory of physical reality. The new approach, called string theory, captured the attention of researchers worldwide, as its elegant mathematics offered the potential to reconcile the two most successful yet conflicting frameworks in physics: Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which governs the vast structures of the cosmos where gravity rules, and quantum mechanics, which governs particles populating the subatomic world.

Four decades and tens of thousands of research papers later, where do we stand? The answer lies not only in assessing scientific progress but also in understanding the profound influence of human nature, even in the ostensibly objective realm of science.…  Seguir leyendo »

Doscientos años de la Segunda Ley

Hace 200 años, el físico francés Sadi Carnot, en un libro que pasó desapercibido durante un tiempo, estableció las bases de la llamada Segunda Ley de la termodinámica. Esta ley forma parte de lo que podríamos llamar certezas inviolables. Entre ellas, la primera es la muerte, la segunda puede ser la Segunda Ley y le siguen otras leyes de la física, los impuestos o la estupidez humana.

Es difícil cuantificar, por el gran número de campos que abarca, la influencia de la Segunda Ley en el desarrollo científico y tecnológico, así como en el bienestar, la mejora en el trabajo o el incremento productivo de la Humanidad.…  Seguir leyendo »

«La naturaleza no es clásica, maldita sea. Si quieres hacer una simulación de la naturaleza, será mejor que la hagas con la mecánica cuántica, y por Dios que es un problema maravilloso porque no parece nada fácil». Fue el gran físico Richard Feynman quién pronunció estas memorables palabras durante una conferencia que llevaba por título Simulando la Física con ordenadores en un congreso sobre Física y computación celebrado en el MIT en 1981. Se daba así el pistoletazo de salida a la apasionante carrera de la computación cuántica, una carrera que, como trataré de argumentar aquí, tiene su meta aún muy lejos.…  Seguir leyendo »

The Large Hadron Collider is the world’s largest particle accelerator. It’s a 16-mile-long underground ring, located at CERN in Geneva, in which protons collide at almost the speed of light. Credit Leslye Davis/The New York Times

The Large Hadron Collider is the world’s largest particle accelerator. It’s a 16-mile-long underground ring, located at CERN in Geneva, in which protons collide at almost the speed of light. With a $5 billion price tag and a $1 billion annual operation cost, the L.H.C. is the most expensive instrument ever built — and that’s even though it reuses the tunnel of an earlier collider.

The L.H.C. has collected data since September 2008. Last month, the second experimental run completed, and the collider will be shut down for the next two years for scheduled upgrades. With the L.H.C. on hiatus, particle physicists are already making plans to build an even larger collider.…  Seguir leyendo »

Inaprensible flecha del tiempo

La ciencia no piensa. Así expresaba Heidegger la incapacidad de la ciencia para salirse de sus esquemas y sus métodos y poder abordar la esencia de la misma ciencia o la de sus conceptos más básicos. Por ejemplo, la física utiliza sus métodos para deducir el comportamiento del mundo a partir de unas variables fundamentales y unas leyes, maneja así con éxito conceptos fundamentales como el espacio o el tiempo sin tener que interesarse por su esencia. El pensamiento de la ciencia es por tanto meramente calculador. De hecho, a la física no le es posible proporcionar una definición de un concepto fundamental como el tiempo, pues la definición requiere ofrecer una explicación refiriéndose a otros conceptos más básicos y ¿qué puede ser más básico que lo fundamental?…  Seguir leyendo »

ADVANCE FOR SUNDAY DEC. 2 - Irene Kilanowski, a lab technician , and Jerry Myers, with MINOS, work together to install a collar, center circle, on one of the octagonal sheets of steel of the neutrino detector, in Soudan, Minn., Nov. 21, 2001. When completed, the MINOS, Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search Far Detector being built will be a target. The shooters, 450 miles away, will be scientists at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory near Chicago. They will shoot subatomic particles called neutrinos at MINOS. (AP Photo/Duluth News Tribune, Bob King)

Neutrinos they are very small.
They have no charge and have no mass
And do not interact at all.
The earth is just a silly ball
To them, through which they simply pass,
Like dustmaids down a drafty hall
Or photons through a sheet of glass.
They snub the most exquisite gas,
Ignore the most substantial wall,
Cold-shoulder steel and sounding brass,
Insult the stallion in his stall,
And, scorning barriers of class,
Infiltrate you and me! Like tall
And painless guillotines, they fall
Down through our heads into the grass.
At night, they enter at Nepal
And pierce the lover and his lass
From underneath the bed – you call
It wonderful; I call it crass.…  Seguir leyendo »

La ecuación matemática más bella del mundo

Hace poco estaba en un avión y practicaba KenKen, un acertijo matemático, cuando otro pasajero me preguntó por qué me molestaba en hacerlo. Le dije que era por la belleza.

Está bien. Admito que es un juego tonto: debes lograr que los números dentro de la cuadrícula obedezcan ciertos límites matemáticos y, cuando lo hacen, todas las piezas quedan juntas y eso te deja un sentimiento de armonía y orden.

Aún así, la pregunta me hizo cuestionarme sobre qué del pensamiento matemático es lo que resulta tan elegante y estéticamente atractivo. ¿Acaso es la lógica interna? ¿La mezcla única de simplicidad y poder expositivo?…  Seguir leyendo »

The World’s Most Beautiful Mathematical Equation

I was doing KenKen, a math puzzle, on a plane recently when a fellow passenger asked why I bothered. I said I did it for the beauty.

O.K., I’ll admit it’s a silly game: You have to make the numbers within the grid obey certain mathematical constraints, and when they do, all the pieces fit nicely together and you get this rush of harmony and order.

Still, it makes me wonder what it is about mathematical thinking that is so elegant and aesthetically appealing. Is it the internal logic? The unique mix of simplicity and explanatory power? Or perhaps just its pure intellectual beauty?…  Seguir leyendo »

"Nada existe, excepto átomos y espacio vacío, lo demás es opinión". Así resumía y sentenciaba Demócrito de Abdera sus ideas, y la de su maestro Leucipo, sobre la estructura de la materia hace unos 2.500 años. Demócrito daba así respuesta a una de las grandes preguntas que se han planteado muchas civilizaciones desde el origen de la humanidad: ¿qué es la materia?

Que la materia está constituida por pequeñas unidades indivisibles (los átomos griegos) ha sido una idea generalizada a lo largo de la historia. La ciencia y la filosofía se han ocupado de esta cuestión durante siglos y los estudios continúan hoy día bajo la etiqueta de física de partículas.…  Seguir leyendo »

Why Vera Rubin Deserved a Nobel

As we look back on 2016, and perhaps fret about 2017, we can take some solace in the remarkable things we know and continue to learn about the universe. In addition to a better understanding of the 5 percent of matter that has been well studied and understood, scientists are unlocking mysteries about the rest — 25 percent of it dark matter, and the remaining 70 percent dark energy.

Dark matter interacts gravitationally the way that ordinary matter does — clumping into galaxies and galaxy clusters, for example — but we call it “dark” because it doesn’t interact, in any perceptible way, with light.…  Seguir leyendo »

The collision of two black holes, detected for the first time by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), is seen in this image from a computer simulation. (Handout/Reuters)

Like many homo sapiens on planet Earth, I was thrilled by this month’s announcement of the first direct detection of gravitational waves. This finding surely ranks with the greatest scientific discoveries of the past 200 years.

Nobody in the scientific community doubted the existence of gravitational waves. They are absolutely required by Albert Einstein’s theory of gravity and have been indirectly inferred from other astrophysical observations. The great achievement here was the construction of the most sensitive scientific instrument ever built — able to measure changes in distance a thousand times smaller than the nucleus of an atom.

We now have a new sense organ with which to fathom the cosmos.…  Seguir leyendo »

The silhouette of a scientist against a visualization of gravitational waves on Feb. 11. Credit Julian Stratenschulte/European Pressphoto Agency

With presidential primaries in full steam, with the country wrapped up in concern about the economy, immigration and terrorism, one might wonder why we should care about the news of a minuscule jiggle produced by an event in a far corner of the universe.

The answer is simple. While the political displays we have been treated to over the past weeks may reflect some of the worst about what it means to be human, this jiggle, discovered in an exotic physics experiment, reflects the best. Scientists overcame almost insurmountable odds to open a vast new window on the cosmos. And if history is any guide, every time we have built new eyes to observe the universe, our understanding of ourselves and our place in it has been forever altered.…  Seguir leyendo »

‘Many physicists regard general relativity as a theory of exemplary beauty. But it’s difficult too.’ Photograph: AP

The discovery of gravitational waves has been hailed as yet another vindication of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity, unveiled a century ago. Indeed it is: among the theory’s predictions was that violent events in the universe involving immense masses – such as the collision and merging of two black holes – could set the fabric of spacetime ringing, the ripples spreading across the cosmos and stretching or squeezing space as they pass.

Experiments at the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory facilities in Washington and Louisiana have detected these distortions, and it’s a tremendous, exhilarating moment for science. But it’s been barely noted what a deeply strange, perhaps unprecedented situation this is too.…  Seguir leyendo »

The results of a big physics experiment have delivered a long-sought, hard-won and resounding victory to Albert Einstein, confirming yet again that the revolutionary theory of gravitation he put forward a century ago is the real deal. The findings cement Einstein's near-mythical stature as one of the greatest scientists of all time.

In 1915, after almost a decade of work, Albert Einstein outlined his sensational gravitation theory, which he called “general relativity.” It characterized gravity as the result of the curved geometry of space and time, and it predicted the existence of gravitational waves. After years of searching, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, or LIGO, finally observed gravitational waves from two colliding black holes.…  Seguir leyendo »

Fue el 14 de septiembre de 2015, pasados unos segundos de las diez menos diez. No nos dimos cuenta, claro. De entre la multitud de fenómenos físicos que nos perturban diariamente, en ese preciso instante, uno entre la multitud venía de muy lejos (10 elevado a 22 metros, más de 500 veces la distancia a nuestra galaxia vecina Andrómeda). Y duró muy poco, 0.2 segundos.

Codificado en la forma de la onda, esa vibración nos envía el mensaje de dos viejos náufragos fundiéndose en uno. No son cualesquiera. Han de ser dos agujeros negros de masas aproximadamente 36 y 29 veces la masa del Sol uniéndose en uno final de 62 veces la masa del Sol para producir esa señal singular.…  Seguir leyendo »

El momento angular

La ciencia no vivía en un gueto. Orazio Grassi, jesuita, arquitecto, matemático y astrónomo, publicó en 1619, bajo el seudónimo de Lotario Sarsi, sus Libra astronomica ac philosophica motivados por la aparición de tres cometas que, siguiendo a Tycho Brahe, estudiaba como cuerpos celestes. Pero su fama le vino por polemizar con un músico, hijo de músico y laudista, que, al contrario que él, pensaba que los cometas eran un fenómeno óptico. Galileo Galilei publicó en 1623 Il Saggiatore contra las tesis de Sarsi. Allí, pese a su error «empírico» sobre los cometas, Galileo, parafraseando al oxoniense Robert Grosseteste, nos dejó unas palabras célebres sobre la ciencia o la filosofía, quehaceres indistintos bajo el imperio de la razón: «Acaso cree Sarsi que la filosofía sea la obra y fantasía de un hombre, como la Ilíada y el Orlando Furioso, libros en los cuales lo menos importante es que lo que dicen sea verdad.…  Seguir leyendo »

In a series of four lectures delivered at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin in November and December 2015, Einstein presented a new theory of gravitation. Illustration: Jasper Rietman

History may judge 2015 as the year when mankind opened up a completely new window on the universe, exactly a century after Albert Einstein laid the scientific foundations for it. The excitement concerns the possibility of detecting one of nature’s most elusive phenomena – gravitational waves – which could pave the way for a much better understanding of black holes, neutron stars and other violent astronomical systems.

Several new projects have been launched in the past few months to make gravitational waves the Next Big Thing in astronomy. Rumours have it that one of these – the US’s Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (Advanced Ligo) – already “detected something” in September, but the scientists involved remain tight-lipped.…  Seguir leyendo »

Una teoría prodigiosa

Se cumplen ahora 100 años de la publicación de la teoría de la relatividad general, sin duda una de las construcciones más bellas y abstractas producidas por la humanidad, una auténtica obra de arte científico que fue pergeñada por la mente de una persona de 36 años de edad, un hombre que, refugiándose de las múltiples condiciones adversas que le rodeaban, trabajaba en solitario: Albert Einstein.

En noviembre de 1915 Einstein se encontraba en Berlín y era víctima de varias guerras. La primera, la mundial, había penetrado en los despachos del instituto dirigido por el químico Fritz Haber en donde trabajaba Einstein.…  Seguir leyendo »

The Light-Beam Rider

This month marks the 100th anniversary of the General Theory of Relativity, the most beautiful theory in the history of science, and in its honor we should take a moment to celebrate the visualized “thought experiments” that were the navigation lights guiding Albert Einstein to his brilliant creation. Einstein relished what he called Gedankenexperimente, ideas that he twirled around in his head rather than in a lab. That’s what teachers call daydreaming, but if you’re Einstein you get to call them Gedankenexperimente.

As these thought experiments remind us, creativity is based on imagination. If we hope to inspire kids to love science, we need to do more than drill them in math and memorized formulas.…  Seguir leyendo »

A Crisis at the Edge of Physics

Do physicists need empirical evidence to confirm their theories?

You may think that the answer is an obvious yes, experimental confirmation being the very heart of science. But a growing controversy at the frontiers of physics and cosmology suggests that the situation is not so simple.

A few months ago in the journal Nature, two leading researchers, George Ellis and Joseph Silk, published a controversial piece called “Scientific Method: Defend the Integrity of Physics.” They criticized a newfound willingness among some scientists to explicitly set aside the need for experimental confirmation of today’s most ambitious cosmic theories — so long as those theories are “sufficiently elegant and explanatory.”…  Seguir leyendo »